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This chapter assesses progress overall toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14, with a focus on the broadest of the targets, SDG 14.2. Response measures that need to be undertaken to protect the Dome and the species that utilize it include a region-wide environmental assessment to identify priorities for protection and management on an ecosystem-basis while acting on a precautionary basis using the best available knowledge to reduce ongoing impacts. Viewed through an ecosystem approach perspective, actions to implement SDG 14 would need to be taken across the ocean in its entirety, be holistic and cross-sectoral, and engage the coordinated efforts of all ocean users and stakeholders. The chapter concludes with policy recommendations to help drive implementation of SDG 14 through key elements of the biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction agreement as well as stepped up scientific capacity development and technology initiatives, including in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Marine conservation actions are promoted to conserve natural values and support human wellbeing. Yet the quality of governance processes and the social consequences of some marine conservation initiatives have been the subject of critique and even human rights complaints. These types of governance and social issues may jeopardize the legitimacy of, support for and long-term effectiveness of marine conservation. Thus, we argue that a clearly articulated and comprehensive set of social standards - a code of conduct - is needed to guide marine conservation. In this paper, we draw on the results of an expert meeting and scoping review to present key principles that might be taken into account in a code of conduct, to propose a draft set of foundational elements for inclusion in a code of conduct, to discuss the benefits and challenges of such a document, and to propose next steps to develop and facilitate the uptake of a broadly applicable code of conduct within the marine conservation community. The objectives of developing such a code of conduct are to promote fair conservation governance and decision-making, socially just conservation actions and outcomes, and accountable conservation practitioners and organizations. The uptake and implementation of a code of conduct would enable marine conservation to be both socially acceptable and ecologically effective, thereby contributing to a truly sustainable ocean.

Over the decades, human activities in and near the world’s oceans have increased exponentially, resulting in serious negative consequences for the state of our marine environment. Scientists are seeing greater and faster change, with more rapid declines in ocean health than had been previously anticipated. Today we live in an age of a changing climate, and no part of the ocean is unaffected by human influence.

Capacity building and technology transfer (CBTT) are vital for the success of a new international legally-binding agreement for marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. Without effective CBTT, many developing countries are unlikely to be able to fulfill their obligations in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), including by undertaking area-based management, evaluating environmental impact assessments, and benefiting from the utilization of marine genetic resources – or to realize their rights. Meanwhile, several other international commitments require varying forms of CBTT at global, regional and national levels. This article analyses areas where synergies are possible for implementing CBTT, and those where additional, ABNJ-related capacities will need to be mainstreamed for holistic ocean management. We argue that CBTT is more meaningful, effective and resource-efficient if it corresponds to the ecological realities of an interconnected ocean by linking initiatives relating to ABNJ with those within national jurisdiction. We discuss why and how CBTT is also more useful on the national level if it maximizes synergies between international policies and agreements, and allows countries to concurrently participate in a BBNJ agreement and fulfill national priorities related to sustainable development, for example by enhancing livelihoods, eradicating hunger and poverty, and building capacity for science and innovation as part of national blue economies based on healthy ocean ecosystems. The Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development offers a timely opportunity to operationalize robust CBTT measures under the BBNJ agreement and maximize synergies with other international commitments - as part of broader efforts to achieve Agenda 2030.

The development of a new international legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ agreement) is in the final negotiation phase. Legal recognition of rights of nature is emerging worldwide as a fresh imperative to preserve ecological integrity, safeguard human wellbeing, broaden participation in decision-making, and give a voice to nature – but so far exclusively within national jurisdiction. In this paper, we consider how a Rights of Nature perspective might inform the BBNJ agreement. We examine Rights of Nature laws and identify four characteristics relating to: i) rights; ii) connectivity; iii) reciprocity; and iv) representation and implementation. We argue that a Rights of Nature perspective can reinforce existing ocean governance norms, inspire new measures to enhance the effectiveness and equitability of the BBNJ agreement and enable global ocean stewardship in ABNJ.

Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs) are the holders of a vast amount of traditional knowledge of the ocean and its resources. In this article, we discuss the potential for this knowledge and the IPLCs holding such knowledge to be recognized by the international community in the development and implementation of an international legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ instrument), drawing on three main types of traditional knowledge of particular relevance to the BBNJ instrument: traditional knowledge based on the connectivity of species and marine processes (both active and passive) between areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJs) and coastal waters; traditional knowledge emerging from environmental management best practices in coastal waters that can be models for similar measures in ABNJs; and traditional knowledge derived from traditional instrument-free navigation between coastal communities and across ABNJs.

The United Nations are currently negotiating a new international legally-binding instrument to govern the global ocean commons, a vast area beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) owned by everyone but not cared for by any single entity. Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs) have been underrepresented in the debate about governance of ABNJ despite their internationally recognized rights and their role as custodians of many globally-significant migratory species that travel between coasts and high seas. Here we use examples of active transboundary connectivity by migratory species as case studies to highlight the relevance of IPLCs on islands, coasts and beyond to the governance of the global ocean commons, and make a case for their essential and beneficial inclusion in it. Many migratory species are culturally and economically important to IPLCs, who are frequently the first to suffer if these species are overexploited or decline due to inadequate management in ABNJ. Four case studies (Pacific salmon, Marine Turtles, Black-footed and Laysan Albatrosses, Northern fur seal) illustrate knowledge, innovations and practices of IPLCs that have global importance in informing strategies for conservation, sustainable and equitable use of marine species in general. IPLCs can contribute to enriching the diversity of approaches and solutions, and by elaborating on principles directly relevant for governance of ABNJ within the UN process and beyond.

There is now high scientific certainty that global environmental change, including climate change, will impact the natural systems that coastal communities of the Pacific region depend on at a scale that they have not experienced before. Using case studies specific to coastal communities in the Pacific island nations and elsewhere, we demonstrate that adaptation policies and strategies that take into account of communities’ own knowledge, and build on the dynamics embedded in their social systems are likelier to succeed. Traditional knowledge is a part of many policy processes, including under the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Pacific Regional Ocean Policy, and has a role in assisting coastal communities in Pacific Island countries in responding to the impacts of climate change through the development of adaptation strategies and the maintenance of cultural integrity. It is not yet known whether traditional knowledge itself could adapt and keep pace with the forecasted rapid changes, including in the events of displacement and migration. Ultimately, we emphasize the importance of co-creation of knowledge, recognizing the value of both scientific and traditional knowledge equally, as the future policy direction for Pacific Islands. In doing so, we acknowledge that the relationship between island nations and their marine environment is deeply cultural, and goes beyond viewing the ocean as simply a source of food and other services.

Marine conservation actions are promoted to conserve natural values and support human wellbeing. Yet the quality of governance processes and the social consequences of some marine conservation initiatives have been the subject of critique and even human rights complaints. These types of governance and social issues may jeopardize the legitimacy of, support for and long-term effectiveness of marine conservation. Thus, we argue that a clearly articulated and comprehensive set of social standards - a code of conduct - is needed to guide marine conservation. In this paper, we draw on the results of an expert meeting and scoping review to present key principles that might be taken into account in a code of conduct, to propose a draft set of foundational elements for inclusion in a code of conduct, to discuss the benefits and challenges of such a document, and to propose next steps to develop and facilitate the uptake of a broadly applicable code of conduct within the marine conservation community. The objectives of developing such a code of conduct are to promote fair conservation governance and decision-making, socially just conservation actions and outcomes, and accountable conservation practitioners and organizations. The uptake and implementation of a code of conduct would enable marine conservation to be both socially acceptable and ecologically effective, thereby contributing to a truly sustainable ocean.

The IUCN World Parks Congress is a once in a decade event that has traditionally been a major forum for advancing global protected area policy and practice. The Congress this November in Sydney Australia will be run along eight streams; addressing biodiversity, climate change, health, ecosystem services, development, governance, indigenous peoples issues and youth; cross-cutting themes address marine issues, capacity building, World Heritage and a New Social Compact. In the following extended editorial, the organisers of the various streams lay out their aims and hopes for the 2014 Congress.

Blue carbon refers to the considerable amounts of carbon sequestered by mangroves, seagrass beds, tidal marshes and other coastal and marine vegetated ecosystems. At the present time, carbon market mechanisms to compensate those conserving blue carbon ecosystems, and thus reducing carbon emissions, are not yet in place. The ecosystem services provided by coastal vegetated ecosystems extend beyond their carbon storage capacity, and include their contribution to fishery production; shoreline protection; provision of habitat for wildlife and migratory species; flood water attenuation; nutrient cycling, pollution buffering; as well as their cultural, spiritual, subsistence and recreational uses. Because these services are of high economic, social and cultural value, the management and protection of blue carbon ecosystems could build collaboration between climate change and biodiversity practitioners on the national and international level. Such collaboration would also allow for the transfer of lessons learned from coastal management and conservation activities to carbon mitigation projects, and would include the need to work closely together with indigenous peoples and local communities. Resulting management activities on the local level could utilize and strengthen traditional knowledge and management systems related to blue carbon ecosystems, and increase both the resilience of biodiversity and that of coastal communities, as well as provide for long-term storage of blue carbon. While the challenge of scaling up local initiatives remains, some concrete examples already exist, such as the network of locally-managed marine areas (LMMAs) in the Pacific and beyond.

This paper maps interrelationships among targets of the Sustainable Development Goal dedicated to oceans (SDG 14), as well as interrelationships between those targets and other SDGs. This is done using a large number of UN reports as well as scientific publications. The literature identifies many linkages among the targets of SDG 14; most of these targets are potentially synergistic with one another. Many linkages also exist between SDG 14 targets and other SDGs. Different targets under SDG 14 link to different SDGs. This has implications for policy discussions on how to achieve progress on SDG 14. The interrelationships that we highlight can be used as a tool for dialogue between policy and scientific communities working on oceans, in particular for assessing the status of knowledge on the various linkages, as well as identifying linkages that are likely to matter most for progress on SDG 14.

This article 1) examines the policy context that created a demand for biogeographic information, 2) describes early national and regional experiences in applying biogeographic classifications, 3) extracts lessons about their usefulness, 4) introduces a broad-scale biogeographic classification for the open ocean and deep seabed called the Global Open Ocean and Deep Seabed (GOODS) biogeographic classification and explains its relevance in this policy context. In so doing it highlights potential uses of biogeographic classifications for the open ocean and deep seabed: these include ecosystem-based management approaches, marine spatial planning and identification of representative networks of MPAs. It also discusses approaches for dealing with problems of uncertainty and connectivity. The article concludes with recommendations for the further development of the GOODS and finer-scale biogeographic classifications.

Bermuda is an isolated 5560 ha chain of limestone islands on a 150 000 ha seamount located near 32° N, 64° W. Meadows of tropical and subtropical seagrasses, dominated by Thalassia testudinum and Syringodium filiforme, are found from inshore bays out to the inner edge of the rim reef that encircles the platform. Fine-scale computerized mapping and subsequent broad-scaled field assessment of seagrass meadows in Bermuda show that (1) meadows representing nearly one-quar- ter of the territory's total seagrass area in 1997 had declined by 2004, (2) net loss of seagrass mead- ows occurred at rim reef and lagoonal locations that are far-removed from anthropogenic distur- bances, (3) the decline appears to have been in progress as early as 1996, and (4) both T. testudinum and S. filiforme meadows declined. Nearly 2100 ha of meadows were visible in a 1997 geo- referenced mosaic of aerial photographs of the Bermuda platform. In 2004, 22 meadows that repre- sented about 475 of the 900 ha of offshore seagrass identified in 1997 and earlier were absent or in obvious decline. The size and location of inshore and nearshore meadows, which are exposed to intense anthropogenic stresses and physical damage, varied over the same 7 yr but their total area has either remained unchanged or even increased. Processes contributing to the decline in offshore meadows have yet to be determined, but may include herbivory by juvenile green turtles and parrot- fishes and below-normal productivity owing to a winter cold-water event correlated with a change in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in 1996. The potential consequences to Bermuda of the loss of nearly 500 ha of critical marine habitat are of extreme concern.

2.1 Introduction The global ocean provides humankind with vital ecosystem goods and services that include the regulation of the Earth's climate, as well as provision of food and other goods, recreation, and spiritual values. The ocean is not only important for the Earth' s economy, but also its environmental balance and survival (Noone et al ., 2013). Human uses of the ocean include fishing (food), shipping, scientific research, the use of genetic resources, mining, underwater cables, energy, water, and recreation. While all those involved in these uses can be considered as ocean stakeholders, the concept of stakeholder is broader than just direct use. Stakeholders can include groups affected by management decisions; groups concerned by management decisions; groups dependent on the resources to be managed; groups with claims over the area of resources; groups with activities that impact on the area or resources; and groups with, for example, special seasonal or geographic interests (Vierros et al ., 2006). Ultimately, however, the entire population of the Earth depends in one way or another on the ocean for their survival, due to the climate regulating and oxygen providing services of these areas, and can thus be considered to be stakeholders. Preserving and maintaining the services provided by the ocean will require integrated, ecosystem-based management approaches and governance structures at both global and local levels, which will take into account both direct human uses and conservation needs, as well as global benefits. Many habitats and species in the ocean are highly threatened by human activities, and the current governance regime is not sufficient and in many cases too fragmented to provide for effective management and protection of multiple and emerging threats 2.2 Value and use of ocean areas, and environmental impacts of use The goods and services provided by the ocean range from climate regulation to food, and recreational and spiritual value. For example, an analysis undertaken by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) project, found the value of coral reefs to humankind to be between US$130,000 and $1.2 million per hectare, per year (Diversitas, 2009).

The parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity identified marine and coastal biological diversity as one of the early priority areas for the work of the Convention. This was reflected in the Ministerial Statement on the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity, issued in conjunction with the second meeting of the Conference of the Parties, in 1995. This statement referred to the new global consensus on the importance of marine and coastal biodiversity, reaffirmed the critical need for the Conference of the Parties in order to address the conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biodiversity, and urged parties to initiate immediate action to implement the decisions of the Conference of the Parties on this issue. This global consensus became know as the Jakarta Mandate on marine and coastal biological diversity. Subsequently, a program of work on marine and coastal biodiversity was drafted in order to assist the implementation of the Jakarta Mandate. The program focuses on five main thematic issues that reflect global priorities. These thematic issues are the implementation of integrated marine and coastal area management, sustainable use of marine and coastal living resources, marine and coastal protected areas, mariculture, and alien species and genotypes. In addition, several basic principles and approaches are also acknowledged.

Protected areas have emerged as a cultural feature and perhaps the largest land resource allocation decision in human history. Yet they are not without controversy on their adequacy for conservation and social justice. We argue that protected areas not only are necessary for conservation, they also contribute to human well-being and social justice in the Anthropocene. The World Parks Congresses have been a major forum for advancing global protected area policy and practice. Recently the IUCN-World Commission on Protected Areas and the IUCN-Global Protected Areas Program has been moving toward a vision parallel and complementary to the proposed Earth Stewardship initiative of the Ecological Society of America. This novel view of IUCN is also called “The Promise of Sydney” because it will be the focus of the 2014 World Parks Congress in Australia. ICUN’s novel view suggests that protected areas are an effective way to put Earth stewardship into action.

Marine genetic resources both within and beyond national jurisdiction have been the focus of international negotiations in a range of forums in recent years. One recurrent theme throughout these discussions has been the absence of detailed information upon which policy responses to the emerging issue of the conservation and sustainable use of marine genetic resources (especially in areas beyond national jurisdiction) could be based. In an effort to address some of these knowledge gaps, this article examines the level and nature of scientific and commercial interest in marine genetic resources, including in areas beyond national jurisdiction. It also examines the changing perspectives of the scientific community in relation to the potential of marine genetic resources. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.