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Western North America is experiencing remarkable human population growth and land-use change. Irrigation and associated cultivation have led to colonization of urban-wildland interface (UWI) environments by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and consequently, cougars (Puma concolor). In the wake of these changes, human-wildlife conflicts have increased in tandem with questions about long-term species conservation. To address these concerns, we fit 79 cougars with radio-telemetry collars in the Oquirrh Mountains near Salt Lake City, Utah (2002–2010). Our goal was to evaluate variation in cougar habitat selection, diet, and cause-specific mortality in a landscape dominated by urban, military, and industrial activities. We used radio-telemetry data in concert with Resource Selection Functions to address three hypotheses: (1) that cougars would select wildland over UWI land-uses; (2) prey composition would reflect differences in land-use; and (3) mortality would be predominantly human-caused. Cougars largely selected wildland habitats associated with seasonal mule deer presence, but contrary to expectation, they also selected habitats closer to urban and mined areas. Prey composition in the UWI did not differ from wildland habitats. Domestic ungulates represented only 2% of 540 recovered prey items and were found primarily in wildlands. Native ungulates comprised > 90% of the total kill, irrespective of season or land-use, suggesting that use of UWI habitats was linked to mule deer presence. Cougar mortality was disproportionately due to natural causes in wildlands, but individuals that died of human causes in UWI habitats were more likely to be inexperienced hunters, supporting young kittens, or compromised by physical handicaps. In general, presence of mule deer was the key predictor of cougar habitat use, even in this highly disturbed, anthropogenically altered landscape. As such, management designed to reduce conflict and ensure conservation will need to focus on urban deer, land-use planning, and targeted education campaigns to reduce food subsidies.

Context Ungulate populations are subject to fluctuations caused by extrinsic factors and require efficient and frequent surveying to monitor population sizes and demographics. Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have become increasingly popular for ungulate research; however, little is understood about how this novel technology compares with conventional methodologies for surveying wild populations. Aims We examined the feasibility of using a fixed-wing UAS equipped with a thermal infrared sensor for estimating the population density of wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve (CCESR), Minnesota, USA. We compared UAS density estimates with those derived from faecal pellet-group counts. Methods We conducted UAS thermal survey flights from March to April of 2018 and January to March of 2019. Faecal pellet-group counts were conducted from April to May in 2018 and 2019. We modelled deer counts and detection probabilities and used these results to calculate point estimates and bootstrapped prediction intervals for deer density from UAS and pellet-group count data. We compared results of each survey approach to evaluate the relative efficacy of these two methodologies. Key results Our best-fitting model of certain deer detections derived from our UAS-collected thermal imagery produced deer density estimates (WR20204_IE1.gif, 95% prediction interval = 4.32–17.84 deer km−2) that overlapped with the pellet-group count model when using our mean pellet deposition rate assumption (WR20204_IE2.gif, 95% prediction interval = 4.14–11.29 deer km−2). Estimates from our top UAS model using both certain and potential deer detections resulted in a mean density of 13.77 deer km−2 (95% prediction interval = 6.64–24.35 deer km−2), which was similar to our pellet-group count model that used a lower rate of pellet deposition (WR20204_IE3.gif, 95% prediction interval = 6.46–17.65 deer km−2). The mean point estimates from our top UAS model predicted a range of 136.68–273.81 deer, and abundance point estimates using our pellet-group data ranged from 112.79 to 239.67 deer throughout the CCESR. Conclusions Overall, UAS yielded results similar to pellet-group counts for estimating population densities of wild ungulates; however, UAS surveys were more efficient and could be conducted at multiple times throughout the winter. Implications We demonstrated how UAS could be applied for regularly monitoring changes in population density. We encourage researchers and managers to consider the merits of UAS and how they could be used to enhance the efficiency of wildlife surveys.

Expansion of anthropogenic noise and night lighting across our planet1,2 is of increasing conservation concern3–6. Despite growing knowledge of physiological and behavioural responses to these stimuli from single-species and local-scale studies, whether these pollutants affect fitness is less clear, as is how and why species vary in their sensitivity to these anthropic stressors. Here we leverage a large citizen science dataset paired with high-resolution noise and light data from across the contiguous United States to assess how these stimuli affect reproductive success in 142 bird species. We find responses to both sensory pollutants linked to the functional traits and habitat affiliations of species. For example, overall nest success was negatively correlated with noise among birds in closed environments. Species-specific changes in reproductive timing and hatching success in response to noise exposure were explained by vocalization frequency, nesting location and diet. Additionally, increased light-gathering ability of species’ eyes was associated with stronger advancements in reproductive timing in response to light exposure, potentially creating phenological mismatches7. Unexpectedly, better light-gathering ability was linked to reduced clutch failure and increased overall nest success in response to light exposure, raising important questions about how responses to sensory pollutants counteract or exacerbate responses to other aspects of global change, such as climate warming. These findings demonstrate that anthropogenic noise and light can substantially affect breeding bird phenology and fitness, and underscore the need to consider sensory pollutants alongside traditional dimensions of the environment that typically inform biodiversity conservation. Human-generated noise and night lighting affect breeding habits and fitness in birds, implying that sensory pollutants must be considered alongside other environmental factors in assessing biodiversity conservation.

The integration of citizen scientists into ecological research is transforming how, where, and when data are collected, and expanding the potential scales of ecological studies. Citizen-science projects can provide numerous benefits for participants while educating and connecting professionals with lay audiences, potentially increasing the acceptance of conservation and management actions. However, for all the benefits, collection of citizen-science data is often biased towards areas that are easily accessible (e.g. developments and roadways), and thus data are usually affected by issues typical of opportunistic surveys (e.g. uneven sampling effort). These areas are usually illuminated by artificial light at night (ALAN), a dynamic sensory stimulus that alters the perceptual world for both humans and wildlife. Our goal was to test whether satellite-based measures of ALAN could improve our understanding of the detection process of citizen-scientist-reported sightings of a large mammal. We collected observations of American black bears Ursus americanus (n = 1,315) outside their primary range in Minnesota, USA, as part of a study to gauge population expansion. Participants from the public provided sighting locations of bears on a website. We used an occupancy modelling framework to determine how well ALAN accounted for observer metrics compared to other commonly used metrics (e.g. housing density). Citizen scientists reported 17% of bear sightings were under artificially lit conditions and monthly ALAN estimates did the best job accounting for spatial bias in detection of all observations, based on AIC values and effect sizes ( β ^ = 0.81, 0.71-0.90 95% CI). Bear detection increased with elevated illuminance; relative abundance was positively associated with natural cover, proximity to primary bear range and lower road density. Although the highest counts of bear sightings occurred in the highly illuminated suburbs of the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan region, we estimated substantially higher bear abundance in another region with plentiful natural cover and low ALAN (up to ~375% increased predicted relative abundance) where observations were sparse. We demonstrate the importance of considering ALAN radiance when analysing citizen-scientist-collected data, and we highlight the ways that ALAN data provide a dynamic snapshot of human activity.

Understanding factors that influence real-world public conservation behaviors is critical for developing successful conservation policies and management actions. Citizens of Colorado, USA recently passed a ballot initiative to restore the gray wolf to its former range within the state. The3 million votes offer an unprecedented opportunity to test factors that influenced decisions to support or oppose this conservation action. We created spatial linear regression models to assess the relationship between support for wolf restoration and (1) the presidential vote, (2) distance to conservation intervention (i.e., proposed wolf reintroduction and existing wolves), and measures of (3) livelihood and (4) demographics using precinct-level data. Our results demonstrate the strong relationship between support for wolf restoration and political support for the Democratic candidate for president in the 2020 election, and highlight how other factors, including increased age, participation in elk hunting, and proximity to the reintroduction region were associated with less support. Our findings underscore the critical role of politicization on public conservation action and the need to develop outreach and engagement strategies to mitigate polarization.

Sun bears (Helarctos malayanus), arguably the least‐known bear species, are endemic to Southeast Asia and are believed to be in rapid decline due to forest loss and poaching, which are severe threats across this region. It has been asserted that, unlike other forest‐dependent, omnivorous bears, sun bears are especially sensitive to changes in forest composition and canopy closure because they often feed on fruits in the canopy. We investigated habitat use of sun bears in a region of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, containing primary forest adjacent to a 14‐yr‐old selectively logged forest. We used strip transects to quantify trees that sun bears climbed to forage or rest; these were easily recognized by distinctive claw marks. We found 1.8× the density of bear‐climbed trees in the logged vs. the primary forest. Dead wood, a home for various insects eaten by sun bears, was more common in logged forests. Except during masting years, when fruits are exceptionally abundant in this area, sun bears commonly consume termites and bees, both of which were more common in the logged forest and had a positive effect on sun bear presence. Sun bear presence was also positively associated with canopy closure, which on average was higher in primary forest, but some portions of logged forest had very high canopy cover. The logged forest had higher vegetative greenness, which up to a point was attractive to bears, but very high greenness, likely indicative of thick underbrush, appeared to be less attractive. These results indicate that previously logged areas can be valuable habitats for sun bears, providing rich supplies of food––both fruits and insects. A number of recent biodiversity surveys using camera traps have also shown high use of logged areas by sun bears, but here we connected this use to food resources. Conservation of this species is better served by appreciating its omnivorous diet and adaptiveness to varying habitats and thus recognizing the importance of preventing logged areas from deteriorating into agriculture. We warn against focusing only on saving primary forests, and predicting declines of this species from forest cutting, without considering forest regeneration.

Anthropogenic habitat change and moderating climatic conditions have enabled the northward geographic expansion of white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, and of the parasitic nematode (meningeal worm) it carries, Parelaphostrongylus tenuis. This expansion can have consequences in dead-end host species for other ungulates because meningeal worm reduces health, causes morbidity or direct mortality, and has been attributed to population declines. In northeastern Minnesota, which marks the southern extent of the bioclimatic range for moose (Alces alces), the moose population has declined more than 50% in the last decade, with studies detecting P. tenuis in 25–45% of necropsied animals. We assessed the factors that most commonly are associated with meningeal worm infection by linking moose movement ecology with known P. tenuis infection status from necropsy. We outfitted moose with GPS collars to assess their space use and cause-specific mortality. Upon death of the subject animal, we performed a necropsy to determine the cause of death and document meningeal worm infection. We then created statistical models to assess the relationship between meningeal worm infection and exposure to hypothesized factors of infection risk based on the space use of each moose by season. Predictors included land cover types, deer space use and density, environmental conditions, and demographics of individual moose (age and sex). Moose with autumn home ranges that included more upland shrub/conifer, and individuals with high proportions of wet environments, regardless of season, had increased infection risk. In contrast, the strongest relationships we found showed that high proportions of mixed and conifer forest within spring home ranges resulted in reduced risk of infection. The spring models showed the strongest relationships between exposure and infection, potentially due to moose foraging on ground vegetation during spring. By incorporating movement of moose into disease ecology, we were able to take a top-down approach to test hypothesized components of infection risk with actual spatial and temporal exposure of individual necropsied moose. The probability of infection for moose was not influenced by deer density, although deer densities did not vary greatly within the study area (2–4 deer/km2), highlighting the importance of also considering both moose space use and environmental conditions in understanding infection risk. We suggest management strategies that use a combination of deer and land management prescriptions designed to limit contact rates in susceptible populations.

Quantifying both the lethal and non-lethal (or “risk”) effects of predation has emerged as a major research focus in carnivore-ungulate systems. While numerous studies have examined predation risk and risk effects in recent decades, a lack of standardization in approaches has impeded progress in the field. We provide an overview of five major study design considerations involved in assessing predation risk and responses of prey in carnivore-ungulate systems, highlighting how different design choices can impact the strength and scope of inference. First, we stress the importance of distinguishing measures of predation risk (probability of being killed) from measures of risk effects (costs of antipredator behaviors in response to risk). Second, we recommend explicit consideration of spatial and temporal scales using a standardized framework to facilitate cross-study comparisons. Third, ungulates use visual, auditory, and olfactory sensory pathways to evaluate predation risk. Experiments that manipulate signals of risk (e.g., auditory playbacks or application of predator scent) can be powerful approaches, but the dosages and types of cues need to be carefully considered. Fourth, ungulates usually face threats from multiple predators simultaneously, and we highlight the potential for remote cameras and structural equation modeling to help address this challenge. Fifth, emerging technologies may substantially improve our ability to assess risk. We discuss several promising technologies, such as animal-borne video, unmanned aerial vehicles, and physiological sensors. We conclude with general recommendations for study design, which may improve the utility of predation risk research for the conservation and management of carnivore-ungulate systems.

Synopsis Global expansion of lighting and noise pollution alters how animals receive and interpret environmental cues. However, we lack a cross-taxon understanding of how animal traits influence species vulnerability to this growing phenomenon. This knowledge is needed to improve the design and implementation of policies that mitigate or reduce sensory pollutants. We present results from an expert knowledge survey that quantified the relative influence of 21 ecological, anatomical, and physiological traits on the vulnerability of terrestrial vertebrates to elevated levels of anthropogenic lighting and noise. We aimed not only to quantify the importance of threats and the relative influence of traits as viewed by sensory and wildlife experts, but to examine knowledge gaps based on the variation in responses. Identifying traits that had less consensus can guide future research for strengthening ecologists’ and conservation biologists’ understanding of sensory abilities. Our findings, based on 280 responses of expert opinion, highlight the increasing recognition among experts that sensory pollutants are important to consider in management and conservation decisions. Participant responses show mounting threats to species with narrow niches; especially habitat specialists, nocturnal species, and those with the greatest ability to differentiate environmental visual and auditory cues. Our results call attention to the threat specialist species face and provide a generalizable understanding of which species require additional considerations when developing conservation policies and mitigation strategies in a world altered by expanding sensory pollutant footprints. We provide a step-by-step example for translating these results to on-the-ground conservation planning using two species as case studies.

The extent of artificial night light and anthropogenic noise (i.e., "light" and "noise") impacts is global and has the capacity to threaten species across diverse ecosystems. Existing research involving impacts of light or noise has primarily focused on noise or light alone and single species; however, these stimuli often co-occur and little is known about how co-exposure influences wildlife and if and why species may vary in their responses. Here, we had three aims: (1) to investigate species-specific responses to light, noise, and the interaction between the two using a spatially explicit approach to model changes in abundance of 140 prevalent bird species across North America, (2) to investigate responses to the interaction between light exposure and night length, and (3) to identify functional traits and habitat affiliations that explain variation in species-specific responses to these sensory stimuli with phylogenetically informed models. We found species that responded to noise exposure generally decreased in abundance, and the additional presence of light interacted synergistically with noise to exacerbate its negative effects. Moreover, the interaction revealed negative emergent responses for several species that only reacted when light and noise co-occurred. Additionally, an interaction between light and night length revealed 47 species increased in abundance with light exposure during longer nights. In addition to modifying behavior with optimal temperature and potential foraging opportunities, birds might be attracted to light, yet suffer inadvertent physiological consequences. The trait that most strongly related to avian response to light and noise was habitat affiliation. Specifically, species that occupy closed habitat were less tolerant of both sensory stressors compared to those that occupy open habitat. Further quantifying the contexts and intrinsic traits that explain how species respond to noise and light will be fundamental to understanding the ecological consequences of a world that is ever louder and brighter.

Global expansion of lighting and noise pollution alters how animals receive and interpret environmental cues. Yet we lack a cross-taxon understanding of how animal traits influence species vulnerability to this growing phenomenon. This knowledge is needed to improve the design and implementation of policies that mitigate or reduce sensory pollutants. We present results from an expert knowledge survey that quantified the relative influence of several ecological, anatomical, and physiological traits on the vulnerability of terrestrial vertebrates to elevated levels of anthropogenic lighting and noise. Our findings, based on 280 responses, highlight the increasing recognition among experts that sensory pollutants are important to consider in management and conservation decisions. Participant responses show mounting threats to species with narrow niches; especially habitat specialists, nocturnal species, and those with the greatest ability to differentiate environmental visual and auditory cues. Our results call attention to the threat specialist species face and provide a generalizable understanding of which species require additional considerations when developing conservation policies and mitigation strategies in a world altered by expanding sensory pollutant footprints. We provide a step-by-step example for translating these results to on-the-ground conservation planning using two species as case studies.

Expanding human populations, combined with an increasingly variable climate, present challenges to the conservation of wide-ranging wildlife species, particularly for populations that persist in human-dominated landscapes. Although the movements and space use of many equid species have been well studied, comparable research of the Hartmann’s mountain zebra (HMZ) Equus zebra hartmannae, which primarily inhabits communal and commercial farming areas of Namibia, has been scarce and may limit conservation effectiveness. Here, we investigated the environmental and anthropogenic factors influencing HMZ movements and resource use across a large area of their range in northwestern Namibia. We deployed 6 GPS collars on HMZ during 2011 to 2013 and used integrated step selection functions to quantify HMZ movements and space use. HMZ movements averaged ~5 km d-1, and mean seasonal home range sizes were 681 and 256 km2 in the wet and dry season, respectively. HMZ selected for areas with high normalized difference vegetation index values (used as a proxy for primary production), particularly during the dry season, while avoiding areas further from water and closer to human settlements, although the effect was less apparent during the rainy season. Movement rates increased when HMZ crossed roads and were closer to roadways, but rates were not impacted by proximity to human activities. These results provide insights toward mitigating human-HMZ conflict. We highlight the difficulty a changing and less predictable climate creates for grazing species living in arid regions, as they must expend more energy and navigate dangers of a growing human footprint to seek out valuable but ephemeral forage.

Determining habitat requirements for the persistence of a wildlife population is especially difficult for wide-ranging, opportunist species. The American black bear (Ursus americanus) is one such species that is re-colonizing parts of its former range and colonizing new geographic regions. We sought to predict the potential for further westward expansion of a population of black bears that has recently colonized a primarily agricultural (>50%) landscape with small fragmented islands of forest (∼17%) at the edge of its range in northwestern Minnesota. We delineated critical aspects of bears’ spatial ecology by examining size and habitat composition of home ranges of GPS-collared individuals (n = 38; 75 bear-years; 2007–2013) at both annual and weekly temporal scales. We measured food production by habitat type, and used a moving window equivalent to a weekly home range (WHR) to quantify and map habitat suitability across the region, considering temporal variations in observed natural forage availability. Male bears used expansive home ranges on an annual basis (largest recorded for this species; 95% KDE h-ref: X ¯ = 834 km2, 95% CI = 596–1072 km2); females traveled less, but still had relatively large home ranges (95% KDE h-ref: X ¯ = 91 km2, 95% CI = 55–128 km2). Summer and fall WHRs contracted when they included higher percentages of oak forest or crop cover (key foods), and expanded with a higher density of roads and higher percentage of non-consumable agriculture and wetlands (i.e., unused areas embedded in the home range). Caloric density had the strongest negative influence on WHR size. We predict males can expand farther westward by virtue of their adaptable, sprawling home ranges that can encompass an array of resources, and their inclination to tolerate and exploit landscapes with few other bears and patchy vegetative cover, embedded with agriculture, roads, and people. Females are more limited to woodlots with natural foods and less apt to be located in open treeless expanses. However, we observed wide year-to-year variations in food production and found that during the most favorable conditions, females could be enticed farther westward, although it is unclear whether they would settle in an environment with even less tree cover than in the current extremity of their range.

Predators directly impact prey populations through lethal encounters, but understanding nonlethal, indirect effects is also critical because foraging animals often face trade-offs between predator avoidance and energy intake. Quantifying these indirect effects can be difficult even when it is possible to monitor individuals that regularly interact. Our goal was to understand how movement and resource selection of a predator (wolves; Canis lupus) influence the movement behavior of a prey species (moose; Alces alces). We tested whether moose avoided areas with high predicted wolf resource use in two study areas with differing prey compositions, whether avoidance patterns varied seasonally, and whether daily activity budgets of moose and wolves aligned temporally. We deployed GPS collars on both species at two sites in northern Minnesota. We created seasonal resource selection functions (RSF) for wolves and modeled the relationship between moose first-passage time (FPT), a method that discerns alterations in movement rates, and wolf RSF values. Larger FPT values suggest rest/foraging, whereas shorter FPT values indicate travel/fleeing. We found that the movements of moose and wolves peaked at similar times of day in both study areas. Moose FPTs were 45% lower in areas most selected for by wolves relative to those avoided. The relationship between wolf RSF and moose FPT was nonlinear and varied seasonally. Differences in FPT between low and high RSF values were greatest in winter (-82.1%) and spring (-57.6%) in northeastern Minnesota and similar for all seasons in the Voyageurs National Park ecosystem. In northeastern Minnesota, where moose comprise a larger percentage of wolf diet, the relationship between moose FPT and wolf RSF was more pronounced (ave. across seasons: -60.1%) than the Voyageurs National Park ecosystem (-30.4%). These findings highlight the role wolves can play in determining moose behavior, whereby moose spend less time in areas with higher predicted likelihood of wolf resource selection.

When black bears cross roads, their HRs increase, indicating heightened alertness to danger. Wildlife reacts to roads in various ways, but it is unknown whether road crossings are stressful. We monitored black bears with cardiac monitors and GPS-collars in Minnesota. On average, bears crossed a road once a day; their HRs increased when 100 m away, and increased more with higher traffic volume, but not enough to suggest roadway interactions were highly stressful.

A hallmark of the Anthropocene is the global expansion of pollution stemming from electric lighting. This evolutionarily novel phenomenon has left few spaces on Earth where natural light cycles remain unaltered. Assessing the exposure of species to light pollution is critical for developing conservation plans that address this expanding sensory pollutant. Here we used data from NASA's Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite to determine the contribution of full moonlight radiance to establish an ecologically-informed threshold of natural radiance. Using the geographic ranges of 351 mammals across the contiguous United States, we estimated the percentage of each species' range in which light pollution exceeded thresholds associated with direct emissions and skyglow, where it did not (“dark environment”), and the associated fragmentation of dark environments. Average mammal range contained 2.6% (95% CI: 2.3–3.2%) of area that consistently exceeded full moon radiance at point-source emissions, but with a large range among species (0–47.4%). Skyglow affected far greater percentages of ranges ( X ¯ = 24.3%; 95% CI: 22.1–26.8%). Nocturnal species had slightly greater exposure than diurnal species. Several families with the most impacted ranges included species of conservation concern (e.g., Molossidae; free-tailed bats). When assessing connectivity of dark environments, we found light pollution fragmented most mammal ranges and resulted in isolated dark refugia (e.g., 154% average increase in patches of dark environments). Identifying species with the greatest exposure to and dark environment fragmentation from light pollution is an important step for targeted conservation efforts of remaining dark refugia for light-sensitive species.

Drones are powerful new tools used in several biological sciences. Previous work indicated that animals behave fearfully or show a stress response near drone flights. Using heart monitors to gauge stress, we found that bears habituated to drones after ~20 flights over a 3–4-week period and remained habituated., Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS; i.e. ‘drones’) provide new opportunities for data collection in ecology, wildlife biology and conservation. Yet, several studies have documented behavioral or physiological responses to close-proximity UAS flights. We experimentally tested whether American black bears (Ursus americanus) habituate to repeated UAS exposure and whether tolerance levels persist during an extended period without UAS flights. Using implanted cardiac biologgers, we measured heart rate (HR) of five captive bears before and after the first of five flights each day. Spikes in HR, a measure of stress, diminished across the five flights within each day and over the course of 4 weeks of twice-weekly exposure. We halted flights for 118 days, and when we resumed, HR responses were similar to that at the end of the previous trials. Our findings highlight the capacity of a large mammal to become and remain habituated to a novel anthropogenic stimulus in a relatively short time (3–4 weeks). However, such habituation to mechanical noises may reduce their wariness of other human threats. Also, whereas cardiac effects diminished, frequent UAS disturbances may have other chronic physiological effects that were not measured. We caution that the rate of habituation may differ between wild and captive animals: while the captive bears displayed large initial spikes in HR change (albeit not as large as wild bears), these animals were accustomed to regular exposure to humans and mechanical noises that may have hastened habituation to the UAS.

Human-altered landscapes are thought to reduce habitat quality for many forest-dependent species, but some omnivorous, opportunist species take advantage of human-related food sources, such as garbage and crops. It is unknown, however, whether anthropogenic foods can sustain populations in areas with relatively little natural habitat. We studied (2007–2012) a population of American black bears ( Ursus americanus ) at the western periphery of their range in Minnesota, in a landscape that was heavily impacted by agriculture (~50%). We estimated the dietary contributions of corn and sunflowers (2–4% of the landscape) versus seasonally available natural foods (spring vegetation, ants, deer, fruit, and nuts) with stable isotope analyses (δ 13 C and δ 15 N) of 110 hair samples from 51 bears. We identified associations between diet and sex, age, body size and condition, reproductive status, space use, habitat connectivity, and natural food abundance. At the population level, adult males and adult females without cubs consumed considerable crops in fall (95% credible intervals: males = 19–46% of diet, females = 10–40%), but females with cubs and juvenile bears rarely consumed crops. Individual estimates of crop consumption were positively correlated with the proportion of GPS-collar locations in crop fields. Females, but not males, decreased crop consumption in years with high availability of natural fall foods. Further, the degree of crop consumption was more closely tied to local crop availability and landscape composition in females than in males. Weight and fat were positively correlated with crop use for both sexes, and males’ use of crops also increased with their physical stature, suggesting that crops provided substantial caloric benefits to bears and that social dominance may have influenced foraging decisions. However, a large segment of this bear population (44% of sampled bear–years) made little use of crops, and crops accounted for more than half the fall diet for only 14% of the population. Whereas some bears clearly benefited from consumption of crops, we conclude that a population of bears could be sustained in this largely agricultural region even without crops as a food source.

SummaryUnmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have the potential to revolutionize the way research is conducted in many scientific fields [1, 2]. UAVs can access remote or difficult terrain [3], collect large amounts of data for lower cost than traditional aerial methods, and facilitate observations of species that are wary of human presence [4]. Currently, despite large regulatory hurdles [5], UAVs are being deployed by researchers and conservationists to monitor threats to biodiversity [6], collect frequent aerial imagery [7–9], estimate population abundance [4, 10], and deter poaching [11]. Studies have examined the behavioral responses of wildlife to aircraft [12–20] (including UAVs [21]), but with the widespread increase in UAV flights, it is critical to understand whether UAVs act as stressors to wildlife and to quantify that impact. Biologger technology allows for the remote monitoring of stress responses in free-roaming individuals [22], and when linked to locational information, it can be used to determine events [19, 23, 24] or components of an animal’s environment [25] that elicit a physiological response not apparent based on behavior alone. We assessed effects of UAV flights on movements and heart rate responses of free-roaming American black bears. We observed consistently strong physiological responses but infrequent behavioral changes. All bears, including an individual denned for hibernation, responded to UAV flights with elevated heart rates, rising as much as 123 beats per minute above the pre-flight baseline. It is important to consider the additional stress on wildlife from UAV flights when developing regulations and best scientific practices.

American black bear (Ursus americanus) populations have been expanding geographically, in part because bears are learning to exploit agricultural landscapes where crops provide an easy and calorically rich foraging opportunity. Consequently, crop depredation has become a growing problem for farmers and wildlife managers. Bears may raid crops because of insufficient natural foods, a drive to increase body mass, or because they discovered the crop fields while looking for other foods. We tested whether simple food preferences, in the absence of other competing factors present in the wild, influence autumn foraging choices. We conducted food-choice trials with 9 captive black bears in 2010 and 2011 to assess preference among primary autumn food options found in northwestern Minnesota, USA, which is a site of present bear-range expansion. Food choices offered in the trials were acorns (preferred natural food), field corn (Zea mays), and 2 kinds of sunflowers (confection and oil; Helianthus annuus). W...

Biologgers can be used to monitor both human and animal physiology and behaviors, activity patterns, and/or environmental stressors. Monitoring of heart rates and rhythms, respiratory patterns, and activity in free-ranging bears can provide unique insights into physiological mechanisms. Such research can also influence the conservation of wildlife, the management of human–wildlife conflicts, and potentially human medicine. Here we describe our experiences with the development and utilization of three generations of implantable biologgers in American black and Eurasian brown bears (Ursus americanus and Ursus arctos arctos). These devices have enabled novel investigations into the underlying mechanisms for winter survival, including the discovery of an extreme respiratory sinus arrhythmias that acts to conserve energy while providing adequate circulation to maintain alertness (i.e., “fight or flight” behaviors). Extreme variations in heart rate have also been documented, including a 33.8 s asystole and a 261 beats/min sinus tachycardia in black bears and a 39.4 s asystole and a 240 beats/min sinus tachycardia in brown bears. Long-term data recording has also identified annual trends in heart rates and activity in both species. Combining physiological data with concurrent GPS collar locations provided insights into the impacts of human and environmental stressors (hunting, predation by other bears, road crossings, drones), which would not have been apparent through spatial data analysis alone. More recently, short-range wireless telemetry has allowed for real-time streaming of data via telemetry stations placed in remote den locations. Future iterations include transponders for biomonitoring and as an early warning system to aid in the prevention of poaching in free-ranging animals. In this review, we discuss the primary experimental capabilities of the current and next-generation systems. We highlight device evolution in terms of new physiological measurements (e.g., temperature, activity, impedance, posture), increased data storage capacity, improved wireless capabilities, and miniaturization to reduce the invasiveness of implantation procedures. These biologgers are now being applied to other species, and the possibilities seem limitless as technologies continue to advance.

Populations inhabiting the bioclimatic edges of a species’ geographic range face an increasing amount of stress from alterations to their environment associated with climate change. Moose Alces alces are large-bodied ungulates that are sensitive to heat stress and have exhibited population declines and range contractions along their southern geographic extent. Using a hidden Markov model to analyze movement and accelerometer data, we assigned behaviors (rest, forage, or travel) to all locations of global positioning system-collared moose (n = 13, moose-years = 19) living near the southern edge of the species’ range in and around Voyageurs National Park, MN, USA. We assessed how moose behavior changed relative to weather, landscape, and the presence of predators. Moose significantly reduced travel and increased resting behaviors at ambient temperatures as low as 15 °C and 24 °C during the spring and summer, respectively. In general, moose behavior changed seasonally in association with distance to lakes and ponds. Moose used wetlands for travel throughout the year, rested in conifer forests, and foraged in shrublands. The influence of wolves Canis lupus varied among individual moose and season, but the largest influence was a reduction in travel during spring when near a wolf home range core, primarily by pregnant females. Our analysis goes beyond habitat selection to capture how moose alter their activities based on their environment. Our findings, along with climate change forecasts, suggest that moose in this area will be required to further alter their activity patterns and space use in order to find sufficient forage and avoid heat stress.

Summary New technologies have made it possible to simultaneously, and remotely, collect time series of animal location data along with indicators of individuals' physiological condition. These data, along with animal movement models that incorporate individual physiological and behavioural states, promise to offer new insights into determinants of animal behaviour. Care must be taken, however, when attempting to infer causal relationships from biotelemetry data. The possibility of unmeasured confounders, responsible for driving both physiological measurements and animal movement, must be considered. Further, response values may be predictive of future covariate values . When this occurs, the covariate process is said to be endogenous with respect to the response variable, which has implications for both choosing statistical estimation targets and also estimators of these quantities. We explore models that attempt to relate = log(daily movement rate) to = log(average daily heart rate) using data collected from a black bear (Ursus americanus) population in Minnesota. The regression parameter for was 0·19 and statistically different from 0 (P

© 2015 Signer et al. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Erratum to: Animal Biotelemetry (2015) 3:16 DOI 10.1186/s40317‐015‐0051‐x The original version of this article unfortunately contains mistakes. The last two paragraphs in Background were moved to make the Conclusion and this is not correct. Please find below the correct text for each section. The correct Background is below

Current understanding of the factors influencing hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) hatch success is disparate and based on relatively short-term studies or limited sample sizes. Because global populations of hawksbills are heavily depleted, evaluating the parameters that impact hatch success is important to their conservation and recovery. Here, we use data collected by the Jumby Bay Hawksbill Project (JBHP) to investigate hatch success. The JBHP implements saturation tagging protocols to study a hawksbill rookery in Antigua, West Indies. Habitat data, which reflect the varied nesting beaches, are collected at egg deposition, and nest contents are exhumed and categorized post-emergence. We analyzed hatch success using mixed-model analyses with explanatory and predictive datasets. We incorporated a random effect for turtle identity and evaluated environmental, temporal and individual-based reproductive variables. Hatch success averaged 78.6% (SD: 21.2%) during the study period. Highly supported models included multiple covariates, including distance to vegetation, deposition date, individual intra-seasonal nest number, clutch size, organic content, and sand grain size. Nests located in open sand were predicted to produce 10.4 more viable hatchlings per clutch than nests located >1.5 m into vegetation. For an individual first nesting in early July, the fourth nest of the season yielded 13.2 more viable hatchlings than the initial clutch. Generalized beach section and inter-annual variation were also supported in our explanatory dataset, suggesting that gaps remain in our understanding of hatch success. Our findings illustrate that evaluating hatch success is a complex process, involving multiple environmental and individual variables. Although distance to vegetation and hatch success were inversely related, vegetation is an important component of hawksbill nesting habitat, and a more complete assessment of the impacts of specific vegetation types on hatch success and hatchling sex ratios is needed. Future research should explore the roles of sand structure, nest moisture, and local weather conditions.

Human activities and variation in habitat quality and configuration have been shown to influence space use patterns in many species, but few studies have documented the physiological responses of free-ranging animals to these factors. We combined remote biologger technology, capturing continuous heart rate values, with locational data from GPS collars to investigate the behavioral and physiological reactions of American black bears (Ursus americanus) to a landscape dominated by agriculture (52.5% areal cover). Our study occurred at the edge of the range of this species, with small, scattered patches of forest within a mosaic of crop fields and an extensive road network. However, only ~2–4% of the area contained crops that bears consumed (corn, sunflowers, oats). We used GPS locations to identify the habitat that bears occupied, and to estimate their rates of travel. Heart rates increased with movement rates, rising by over 30% from resting rate to their fastest travel speeds. We used a modeling approach t...