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This case illustration highlights the use of Michael J. Mahoney’s constructive psychotherapy with a Slavic-American female college student. The client’s presenting issues included anxiety, low self...

Humanistic approaches to counseling are particularly concerned with process, emphasizing the person of the client, the person of the counselor, and the therapeutic relationship. Process and outcomes in humanistic interventions are highly related and complementary aspects of counseling. Counseling outcomes may include client outcomes as well as research outcomes. Whereas client outcomes are focused on the specific needs of clients, research outcomes tend to focus on generalizable results. When considering process, outcomes, or research, the humanistic counselor seeks to integrate the principles of humanism into all aspects of practice. ********** Modern humanism encompasses an abundance of diverse theories and approaches (Scholl, McGowan, & Hansen, 2012). These theories and approaches, including person-centered therapy, Gestalt therapy, both the American and European existentialist perspectives, and assorted creative therapies, are connected by their respect for each person as a whole, not reducible to any or all parts of him- or herself (Davidson, 2000; Hansen, 2012). Furthermore, humanistic approaches share an emphasis on our subjective experiencing of ourselves, our relationships, and our environment (Scholl et al., 2012). This article offers an examination of three complementary, interrelated, and recursive aspects of humanistic counseling--process, outcomes, and research--each of which will be examined individually and in conjunction with the others. As previously mentioned, humanism entails an antireductionistic stance and the belief that individuals are best understood when viewed as whole beings (Davidson, 2000). Several additional principles of humanism logically follow from this fundamental principle of irreducibility. These include the principles of individualism, valuing subjective experiences, and respect for the dignity of the individual. Taken collectively, these four principles inform Bohart's (2003) assertion that humanistic practices are "people responsive" or highlight "relating to human beings in growth-producing ways" (p. 146). However, it is important to recognize that at times the principle of irreducibility can come into direct conflict with the other principles, as well as the importance of being people responsive. For example, rather than a holistic goal, a client's sense of purpose may include the more specific goal of eliminating his or her subjectively experienced public speaking anxiety. In this example, the principle of irreducibility comes into direct conflict with the principles of valuing subjective experiences and respect for a client's sense of purpose. When these principles come into direct conflict, we assert that humanistic counselors have a primary responsibility to respect the client's subjectively experienced needs, sense of purpose, autonomy, and ability to self-select personally meaningful goals. In this case, being people responsive supersedes the principle of irreducibility. There is a parallel process with regard to a discussion of humanistic processes and outcomes. Whenever possible and practical, we recommend that humanistic processes and outcomes be framed with a holistic lens to encompass the whole person, alone and in relation to others. However, consistent with the previous example of the client with public speaking anxiety, the humanistic counselor's primary obligation is to honor the client's subjectively perceived needs. Rather than addressing the philosophical ideal of irreducibility, the humanistic counseling process should be people responsive and aimed at addressing the client's needs or goals (Young, 2013). Because humanistic counseling is holistic and honors the subjective experiences of the client and counselor, it also honors the personhood of the client and counselor and is deeply relational (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2008). Humanistic counselors use their own development as a springboard for partnering with others in a professional relationship (20/20: A Vision for the Future of Counseling, 2010) to support the person/client in developing his or her unique human potential. …

Counselor supervision is fundamental to the development of ethical and competent counselors. As with any approach to working with students, a “1-size-fits-all model” is not always the most effective approach to supervision with developing counselors. Creative approaches to counselor supervision involve the use of nonlinear and nontraditional methods. In this article, the authors apply 3 creative approaches to a single case. Through this case application, they demonstrate the effectiveness of bibliotherapy, psychodrama, and sandtray in the supervisory process.

The authors investigated whether the film October Sky could be used as an effective tool for teaching career theories in a master's-level course (N = 20). They were also interested in whether the film would promote engagement with the content. Consistent with the phenomenological research tradition (Moustakis, 1994), the authors examined students' subjective beliefs, feelings, and views of career theories in an atheoretical manner. Results indicate that the film promoted learning and engagement. ********** Students frequently come to their first career counseling class with the impression that career counseling is less personal, more formulaic, and more directive than other forms of counseling (Betz & Corning, 1993). Because of a natural tendency for students to view a career counseling course as dry and uninteresting, counselor educators find that promoting student engagement with the course content is a daunting challenge (Oberman & Studer, 2009; Osborn, 2008; Pope & Minor, 2000). Counselor educators have traditionally used lectures that emphasize memorization to teach career development and counseling theories (Tang, 2009). However, more recently, researchers have recommended using more creative approaches, including experiential activities, as a means of promoting student engagement with course content (Oberman & Studer, 2009; Osborn, 2008; Pope & Minor, 2000). Just as the term guidance counselor has given way to the more contemporary term school counselor (Brown & Trusty, 2005; Lambie & Williamson, 2004), directive trait-and-factor approaches are giving way to more humanistic, individualized (Cochran, 1997; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2012, Savickas, 1995) and less directive, holistic approaches to career counseling (Farmer, 2009; Super, 1993; Zunker, 2011). One of our primary objectives when teaching career counseling course content is to promote awareness of the common characteristics shared by career counseling and personal counseling. For example, Betz and Coming (1993) noted that career counseling and personal counseling share some features, such as an emphasis on a good working relationship and a three-phase process that includes rapport-building, working, and termination phases. Career counselors must potentially deal with numerous client personal concerns (L. S. Hansen, 2002; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2012; Zunker, 2011), including, for example, coping with joblessness, career burnout, and work-related stress. In presenting career counseling theories to counselors-in-training (CITs), we believe that it is important to contextualize these theories within a historical context. In addition, we believe that several noteworthy trends in the historical development of the career counseling profession (e.g., placing more emphasis on clients' subjective experiences, increasing the use of a holistic approach to career counseling) might be interpreted as indicating that career counseling practice has become more humanistic. There are many diverse elements to humanism and humanistic counseling practice. The principle that unifies these elements, however, is the idea that humans are irreducible to other phenomena (Davidson, 2000; J. T. Hansen, 2006; Matson, 1971). That is, humans are best understood as whole beings. This organizing principle of irreducibility logically leads to three supporting elements: (a) individualism, (b) a focus on subjective experience, and (c) an emphasis on each person's capacity for being self-directed. One relevant historical trend predates the formal practice of career counseling. The late 1800s and early part of the 20th century were characterized by an interest in the study of individual differences (e.g., Galton, 1869) and individualized approaches to education to better accommodate the needs of children (Zunker, 2011). Furthermore, during the early 1900s, Frank Parsons's (1909) trait-and-factor approach reflected respect for the individual's interests and abilities (see Brown, 2012; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2012; Zunker, 2011). …

The history of the Association for Humanistic Counseling (AHC) can be traced back to 1931. Organization members documented the early development of the division and progress until the early 1980s in previous publications. In this article, AHC's dynamic history since the mid-1980s is illustrated. The humanistic perspective of the division as well as its creed, leadership history, membership, publications, governance structure, and future directions are discussed. ********** The Association for Humanistic Counseling (AHC) originated as a collaborative effort to respond to the needs of society (e.g., supporting the women's movement, civil rights, and social justice platform, which are discussed further in the Activism section). A long history of division involvement and metamorphoses has since transpired as the division evolved in relation to social changes (A. S. McGowan, personal communication, September 1, 2008). AHC members documented much of the division's progress from 1931 to the early 1980s (Sheeley, 1975; E. S. Wilson & Robinson, 1985). However, advancements made since the mid-1980s have gone unrecognized. The purpose of this article is to document the division's forward movement since the 1980s, including the timeline of leadership changes, membership trends, contributions to the professional literature, and future directions. AHC began in 1931 with the organization named the Teachers College Personnel Association (TCPA; Sheeley, 1975). In 1946, the organization's name changed to the Personnel Section of the American Association of Teachers Colleges. A few years later, in 1951, the name was updated to the Student Personnel Association for Teacher Education (SPATE; Allen, 1962). A year later, in 1952, SPATE collaborated with three other organizations to establish the American Personnel and Guidance Association, which was later renamed the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD), and then renamed the American Counseling Association (ACA; Kaplan, 2002). SPATE remained one of the four founding divisions of ACA. While a division of ACA, the organization changed names three additional times. The first change occurred in 1974, to become the Association for Humanistic Education and Development (AHEAD); the second change occurred in 1998, to become the Counseling Association for Humanistic Education and Development (C-AHEAD); and the third change occurred in 2010, to become the Association for Humanistic Counseling (AHC). AHC FOUNDATIONS: HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE, COUNSELING, CREED, AND PURPOSES AHC considers itself the heart and conscience of the counseling profession (C-AHEAD, 2008b). Division leaders strive to stay on the forefront of critical issues affecting human beings, in general, and clients served, in particular (A. S. McGowan, personal communication, September 1, 2008). AHC members call attention to important issues in society and the counseling profession. As a division, members work to act as a buffer and defense against social injustices, and members hold fast to the belief that all persons are entitled to intrinsic respect. The division's stance on important issues has been a catalyst for change within society and the profession. AHC's humanistic perspective, counseling focus, creed, and purposes demarcate the division's path. The liberal and progressive perspective of humanism has remained a constant core of the division since its original creation (A. S. McGowan, personal communication, September 1, 2008). Humanism is the central aspect that inspired the creed and purposes and focuses the activism of the division. Humanism Humanism, as a philosophy guiding counseling and education practices, may be understood as having many diverse elements (Hansen, 2006; J. T. Hansen, personal communication, May 4, 2009). The principle uniting these diverse elements is the idea that humans are irreducible to other phenomena (Davidson, 2000). …

The authors present the constructivist resume, an original approach developed to promote professional identity development and career adaptability (i.e., concern, curiosity, confidence, and control) in students completing graduate-level counselor training programs. The authors discuss underlying theories, induding Super's (1990; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) life span, fife space theory and Peavy's (1998) SocioDynamic Counseling Model, and their applications to career counseling. They also provide a detailed case illustration, make practical recommendations, and note the advantages and limitations of the approach. The postmodern perspective views human knowing as a process of subjective meaning making in which knowledge is constructed by the individual. Constructivism, a relatively new theoretical counseling perspective, posits that individuals create meaning in their own iivesi Savickas ( 1993 ) called for the increased development and application of constructivist approaches in career counseling to keep pace with contemporary society's movement to a postmodern perspective. A clear indication of the profession's amrmarive response is reflected in the fact that today many career counseling textbooks include chapters devoted to constructivist approaches (e.g., Sharf, 2002; Zunker, 2006). In addition, there has been a recent increase in the development of constructivist career assessment techniques (Sharf, 2002) as well as constructivist applications to the career counseling process (Brott, 2005). Despite the increased use of constructivist career applications during the past 15 years, some authors have also noted potential limitations to constructivist approaches (e.g., McMahon & Watson, 2008). For example, these approaches have been criticized for placing too much emphasis on imagination and too little on real-life action (Reid, 2006). In addition, effective implementation of these approaches often requires personal qualities, including openness and imagination, on the part of both the counselor and the client (McMahon, 2006). Constrncring Idenrirks The need for openness and imagination on the part of clients is particularly apparent regarding those constructivists advocating that clients apply postmodera principles to the task of designing their identity. By intentionally selecting and participating in identity construction experiences, a person can potentially construct his or her identity. Peavy's (1998) SocioDynamic Counseling Model views the self as a project that is perpetually being constructed by the individual. From the SocioDynamic counseling perspective, a self that is complex and fluidly adapts to changing contextual demands represents an optimal level of functioning (Hansen, 2005). By contrast, Morgan (2000) described individuals who tell simple,. brief, and incomplete autobiographical stories as having thin narratives. We believe that thin narratives may in part be the product of a thin collection of accrued experiences and related social roles or selves. Because of a relative lack of world of work experiences, the graduate student who is nearing completion of her or his graduate studies is likely to possess a thin sense of her or his professional identity. Thin professional identities plausibly limit an individual's ability to adopt a forward-looking, selfconfident stance during the transition from graduate school to professional employment- What is required during this challenging transition period is a constructivist approach that will promote the development of a more complete sense of identity. In other words* the individual needs a developmental approach that will thicken her or his professional identity. For this reason, we describe and recommend the constructivist resume not only as a product, but also as a process that potentially facilitates the development and implementation of a student's professional identity Super's Exploration Stage and the Transitioning Process The most highly regarded developmental career theory, which also advocates the use of developmental counseling approaches,« Super's Super, 1990; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) life span, life space theory. …

Motivational Interviewing (MI; W. R. Miller & S. Rollnick, 2002) is presented as a potentially effective counseling strategy for assisting traditionally aged college students in reducing their problematic, heavy alcohol use. MI's congruence with two developmental theories--Self-Determination Theory (R. M. Ryan & E. L. Deci, 2000) and SevenVector Model (A.W. Chickering & L. Reisser, 1993)--is explored. In addition to presenting a case illustration, recommendations, advantages, and limitations are discussed. ********** Alcohol abuse is a common student concern addressed by college counseling professionals. For example, researchers have reported binge drinking behavior among 23% (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, & Lee, 2000) to approximately 40% of undergraduate university and college students (Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 2001a, 2001b; O'Malley & Johnston, 2002). Furthermore, in a survey study consisting of 14,000 participants, 6% of undergraduates reported recently engaging in behaviors meeting the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) criteria for a diagnosis of alcohol dependence, and 31% reported recently engaging in behaviors meeting the criteria for a diagnosis of alcohol abuse (Knight et al., 2002). Alcohol abuse is problematic not only because abuse behaviors may sometimes graduate toward dependence, but also because alcohol abuse has been associated with such problems as academic difficulties, sexual assaults, physical fights, homicidal behaviors, suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and driving while intoxicated (Hingson, Heeren, Winter, & Wechsler, 2005; Wechsler, Lee, et al., 2000). In the social context, peers of alcohol abusing college students report such undesirable effects as interrupted sleep, unwanted sexual advances, and property damage (Gintner & Choate, 2003). Consequently, many colleges and universities devote resources to the prevention and reduction of alcohol abuse (Wechsler, Kelley, Weitzman, San Giovanni, & Seibring, 2000). Despite the priority often placed on addressing alcohol abuse, student binge drinking seems to have increased over the past 20 years (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2007; Wechsler, Lee, et al., 2000). One inherent difficulty in effectively treating alcohol abuse on campuses may be related to the college years representing a transitional period of exploration for traditional-age students that is characterized, in part, by increased risk-taking behavior such as drug and alcohol use. To effectively treat college students' alcohol abuse, counselors must understand the problem in the context of the person's developmental process (Baer & Peterson, 2002). Arnett (2000) described a transitional period of emerging adulthood between adolescence and adulthood, which corresponds to traditional college age. According to the model (Arnett, 2000), emerging adulthood is characterized by high levels of risk-taking behavior, including use of substances, as young adults seek to explore various aspects of their identities (e.g., love, work). Participation in novel, intense, or risky behaviors such as alcohol misuse is commonly facilitated by independent living arrangements and peer norms supporting risk taking. The characteristics of this developmental process also include factors that may pose special challenges for college counselors. First, students who abuse alcohol frequently do not view themselves as having a problem (Baer & Peterson, 2002). Second, students who abuse alcohol commonly perceive drinking behavior as rewarding and are consequently ambivalent about changing their behavior (Gintner & Choate, 2003; Vik, Culbertson, & Sellers, 2000). Third, some researchers have suggested that college students who abuse alcohol frequently are also struggling to establish autonomy from families in which they have experienced unusually high parental control (Baer & Peterson, 2002). …

One of my greatest joys as an editor comes from facilitating the development of a manuscript from its initial submission, through one or more revisions, until ultimately it is ready for publication. Each time I begin to read a manuscript, it is my sincere hope that it will be one that is well-suited for publication in The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development (JHCEAD). I consider our journal to be one that is author-friendly, and my heart sinks whenever I come to the conclusion that I should decline a piece for publication. All too often, the decision not to publish is related to the fact that the content of the manuscript is not clearly related to humanism. In fact, this may be the most common problem that I find in submitted manuscripts. As a result, my purpose in writing this editorial is to provide guidelines for preparing manuscripts in which humanistic themes are central and salient. In a previous editorial on recommended practices for publishing in scholarly journals, Smaby, Crews, and Downing (1999) found a significant correlation between the quality of a manuscript's introduction and the final disposition of the manuscript. They recommended that submitting authors include a current review of the literature and a statement of the importance of the problem being addressed. Of course, when preparing a manuscript for JHCEAD, similar recommendations apply. In addition, the authors should discuss the relevance of the manuscript to humanism or humanistic counseling. On several occasions, I have read comments from JHCEAD's editorial reviewers similar to the following: "While your proposed program is obviously humane, I am not sure how it pertains to humanism." I strongly encourage authors to put on their humanistic spectacles while preparing their manuscripts for submission to JHCEAD. I provide the following sections detailing "Themes Characteristic of the Humanistic Perspective" and "The Evolutionary Nature of Humanism and Humanistic Counseling" as guides for facilitating humanistic perspective-taking. THEMES CHARACTERISTIC OF THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE For a wide variety of theoretical perspectives and related manuscript topics, it is possible to make strong connections to the humanistic literature. However, in many cases author(s) appear to be unaware of the importance of making these theoretical or thematic connections explicit, or perhaps are not certain how to do so. For this reason, here I provide examples of humanistic themes and principles. One source of this type of information comes from the first paragraph of JHCEAD's "Guidelines for Authors," which is published in most issues and repeated as follows: The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development invites articles and studies that focus on counseling from a humanistic perspective, highlighting education and development. Featured topics include the design and implementation of humanistic counseling strategies and instructional programs for changing systems into more humanistically oriented organizations. Articles emphasizing the human factors that influence counseling, teaching, learning, growing, and living are sought. They may touch on a wide variety issues, including humanistic theories and goals, the integration of human potential practices, and strategies for making human service and educational organizations more people responsive. A key aspect of this description is the term people responsive. This term applies to practices that highlight "relating to human beings in growth-producing ways" (Bohart, 2003, p. 107). Occasionally, I receive manuscripts in which humanistic themes are somewhat present, but the primary focus seems to be on recommendations that benefit the counseling profession or an organization (e.g., an emphasis on screening or gatekeeping functions) rather than the individual. Although these manuscripts are usually well-written and scholarly, in comparison with manuscripts where people-responsive practices are the primary focus, they are less likely to be accepted for publication in JHCEAD. …

The authors briefly introduce the concepts, techniques, and theory of identity development associated with J. L. Moreno's (1946, 1969, 1993) Psychodrama. Based upon Loganbill, Hardy, and Delworth's (1982) model, counselor identity development is conceptualized as consisting of seven developmental themes or vectors (e.g., issues of awareness and effective use of emotions in counseling, issues of professional ethics in counseling practice, etc.). Development along these seven psychosocial vectors may be regarded as resembling the process of role repertoire expansion described in Moreno's (1993) identity development theory. The authors present four representative psychodrama activities that have been used with supervisees in group supervision.

The author investigated the relationships among the racial identity development status levels (preencounter, dissonance, immersion/resistance, and internalization) of 121 Native American college students and their preferences for counselor role (audience giving, approval giving, advice giving, and relationship giving). Participants most preferred a relationship-giving counseling style followed by an advice-giving style. The Internalization variable significantly predicted preferences for the audience-giving, advice-giving, and relationship-giving counselor roles. Implications for college counselors are provided. Native Americans complete undergraduate degrees at a rate of 11.5% compared with 27.0% for the general population (Babco, 2005). Compared with all other racial groups, Native American undergraduates are the least likely to persist to the 2nd year (DuBrock, 1999; Smith, 1995). Incidence of psychological concerns may contribute to this population's relatively high attrition rate. Previous researchers found that college adjustment was negatively associated with the presence of psychological concerns (Baker & Siryk, 1999; Flescher, 1986). Correspondingly high rates of suicide (EchoHawk, 1997; Herring, 1994), drug abuse (Austin, 1988; Choney, Berryhill-Paapke, & Robbins, 1995), and alcohol-related deaths (Backover, 1991) all have been reported for Native American adults. Furthermore, Native Americans with counseling concerns also tend to underutilize counseling services (Archer & Cooper, 1998; Choney et al., 1995; Garrett & Pichette, 2000). Consequently, college counselors need to better understand those factors that contribute to Native American student adjustment difficulties, attrition, and use of counseling. The counselor's level of cultural responsiveness has been reported to be one factor important to Native American use of mental health services. This factor may include both actual and anticipated levels of counselor responsiveness. With respect to actual counselor behaviors, non--Native American counselors often fail to appropriately respond to Native American beliefs and values (LaFromboise, 1988; Robbins & Harrist, 2004). Importantly, the counselor's level of cultural responsiveness predicts not only Native American client engagement in the counseling process but also whether positive outcomes are achieved (Bland & Kraft, 1998; Dillard & Manson, 2000). With respect to anticipated counselor behaviors, Native American clients may not participate in counseling because of mistrust of non-Native American authority figures (Jackson & Turner, 2004; Manson & Trimble, 1982; Price & McNeil, 1992). Along these lines, Atkinson, Jennings, and Liongson (1990) found that Native American college students who anticipated lack of cultural responsiveness were more likely to avoid or decline file use of counseling services when needed. When it comes to enhancing the counselor's level of cultural responsiveness, scholars tend to agree on the importance of factors, including familiarity with Native American values (Baruth & Manning, 2003; Garrett, 2003), the provision of client-centered qualities (i.e., genuineness, positive regard, and empathy; Dillard & Manson, 2000; Garrett, 2003), and the flexible application of traditional counseling approaches (Trimble, Fleming, Beauvais, & Jumper-Thurman, 1996; Vick, Smith, & Herrera, 1998). However, when it comes to adopting an effective counselor role, scholars alternately recommend a directive role (Axelson, 1999; Trimble & LaFromboise, 1985), a nondirective role (Tanaka-Matsumi & Higginbotham, 1996; Wise & Miller, 1983), mad the flexible application of a variety of roles (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1997; Bland & Kraft, 1998; Carter, 1995; Steenbarger, 1993). Counselors need a better understanding of role factors associated with positive outcomes (Dillard & Manson, 2000). For example, when Native American clients' preferences for counselor role are not confirmed in actual encounters with counselors, they tend to experience increased feelings of skepticism and mistrust, which are associated with negative counseling outcomes (Bland & Kraft, 1998). …

A former editor (A. S. McGowan) of The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, currently the editor of the Journal of Counseling & Development, and the current editor (M. B. Scholl) present strategies and guidelines for prospective authors to enhance the chance of successful publication in this and other American Counseling Association--refereed journals. This article is an updated version of one that was written by A. S. McGowan and that appeared in 1997 in the Journal of Humanistic Education and Development. ********** Getting published is a great joy that generally is preceded by hard work and frustration for both the neophyte author and the established scholar. Although the process of becoming published can be harrowing and exasperating, it is also a rewarding one, from the development of an idea to its appearance in print. The goal of seeing a work published is achievable if the author possesses most, if not all, of the following characteristics, abilities, and attitudes: writing competency; self-discipline regarding a writing regime; strong scholarly and theoretical foundations underlying the research of the professional ideas being proposed or advanced; ability to create and present practical counseling strategies that work in the field; willingness to accept constructive criticism from peer reviewers and editors; and stamina, strength, and patience to persevere in the face of criticism. Thompson (1995) offered the following perspective on successful publishing efforts: The most productive scholars are (sometimes) distinguished by extraordinary intellect, but some are primarily distinguished by willingness to be systematic and persistent. Success in publishing requires a willingness to tolerate rejection and a willingness to learn from it. Success also will sometimes occur primarily by luck. (p. 342) Although we agree that luck can play a part in getting published, we believe that luck happens only when it meets with preparation and competency. The determined author who has at least the vestiges of a viable manuscript that contributes to the scholarly base of the profession can get it published. As published researchers and authors, we know what it is like to have hopes temporarily dashed by a suggestion to "rewrite and resubmit" of to be rejected after having spent months and weeks on a particular research project or article. We know how disappointing it can be to wait expectantly and hopefully for 2 or 3 months for a response and then receive one of those messages. In truth, when that happened to us, we felt like an autopsy had been performed on the body and soul of manuscripts that we had been certain were of sterling quality. In such instances, we put our manuscripts aside and postponed deciding whether to continue with the project or to move on to another area of research interest. Often, we had to admit that the reviewers' critiques, as painful as they were, allowed us to be more objective and critical of our own work. We found that by accepting and acting on most, if not all, of the critical suggestions, we improved the manuscripts; in all instances, the manuscripts were eventually published. As one of us has noted before (McGowan, 1996), one study was rejected by four journals before it was finally accepted. Because the study was not itself fatally flawed, I (McGowan) was able to improve the manuscript until, finally, it was publishable. In retrospect, I understand and accept that I had to go through that excruciatingly painful process because it resulted in a final product that was finely crafted and well received by the profession. I can now look back on that study with pride. In addition, those rejections made me realize that prior planning is necessary before beginning a study or article if it is to be published. It is extremely important for prospective authors to be willing to accept constructive criticisms. The editor guards the identity of each author, and the reviews are masked ones. …

This study examined 152 undergraduate clients' interpersonal styles as they relate to preferences for counselor roles. The results indicated a moderate positive association between clients' interpersonal styles and their preferences for counselor roles. Moreover, beginning clients were found to prefer advice giving to active listening. Counselors can promote continuation and improve the quality of the working relationship by adapting their initial approach to match the preference of the client. ********** Clients enter counseling with preconceived preferences about the role of a counselor (e.g., Kelly, 1955; Morrison, 1991). Clients whose preferences for counselor roles are confirmed most often continue in counseling (Fiester & Rudestam, 1975; Mohl, Martinez, Ticknor, Huang, & Cordell, 1991; Tryon, 1986, 1989a, 1989b, 1990), but disconfirmed preferences for counselor roles strongly predict premature termination (Hansen, Hoogduin, Schaan, & Haan, 1992; Mohl et al., 1991; Piper et al., 1999). Unfortunately, premature termination occurs with great frequency in counseling (Morrison, 1991; Wierzbicki & Pekarik, 1993). Because a client's decision to drop out is commonly made after the first or second session (Anderson, Hogg, & Magoon, 1987; Ciarlo, 1979; Morrison, 1991; Pekarik, 1983), counselors working to ensure continuing treatment may only have a brief window of opportunity in which to understand and appropriately respond to a client's role preferences. To intentionally address client preferences for counselor role early, it is helpful to identify specific predictor variables. For college student clients, potentially salient predictor variables come from Chickering and Reisser's (1993) descriptions of seven critical developmental tasks of college students: (Vector 1) achieving competence, (Vector 2) managing emotions, (Vector 3) moving through autonomy toward interdependence, (Vector 4) developing mature relationships, (Vector 5) establishing identity, (Vector 6) clarifying purposes, and (Vector 7) developing integrity. Each of the developmental tasks highlighted in this seven vector model is relevant to counseling, but Vectors 3 and 4 are particularly relevant to clients' preferences for counselor role. For example, researchers have indicated that counselor role expectation factors reflect client autonomy nd interdependence (Vector 3) as they move from levels of high dependence to levels of independence and ultimately interdependence (Berzins, 1971; Bickers Ovsiankina, Berzins, Geller, & Rogers, 1971; Tracey & Dundon, 1988). Several studies have also demonstrated a positive relationship between the client's capacity for mature relationships (Vector 4) and the quality of client-counselor relationships (Kokotovic & Tracey, 1990; Mindingall, 1985; Ryan & Cicchetti, 1985). Another factor associated with preferences for counseling is previous counseling experience. Tracey and Dundon (1988) reported that across 15 sessions of counseling, clients had a tendency to increase in their preferences for an audience-giving and a relationship-giving counselor. They suggested that this might be evidence of role learning with increased experience in the client role. Similarly, Berzins (1971) found that undergraduate clients with prior counseling experience had higher expectations for an audience-giving counselor. Last, client race may also influence preferences for counselor role (Coleman, 1997; Fuertes & Gretchen, 2001; Lee, 1997; Locke, 1998; Ramirez, 1999; Vontress, Johnson, & Epp, 1999). Research has frequently failed to examine differential results across race (S. Sue, 1999), but the research that has been conducted seems to indicate that different racial groups have different styles of interaction that translate into different preferences for counselor role (e.g., D. W. Sue & Sue, 1999). …

This paper makes recommendations for revising Loganbill, Hardy, and Delworth's (1982) developmental model of counseling supervision. In addition to relevant supervision theory and research findings, Chickering and Reisser's (1993) updating of Chickering's (1969) original model of young adult development is used to inform these recommendations. The updated model incorporates approximately 25 additional years of adult development literature including studies with more diverse samples. Lastly, the paper presents suggestions for future research and supervision practice.

The author of this article presents the Career Path Tournament, a game for heightening participants' awareness of sociological factors (e.g., race, gender, and discrimination in hiring) influencing career advancement and of the need to anticipate and cope with these factors. The game, which is based on Rosenbaum's ( 1976, 1981, 1984) Tournament Model, is intended for junior high, high school, and college students in a classroom setting. Undergraduate participants' (N = 74) quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the game are presented as evidence that the game raised awareness of sociological barriers and provided participants with helpful suggestions for adaptively coping with these barriers. The Career Path Tournament uses a round-by-round elimination format to illustrate the constraining effects of sociological forces on career advancement. The game is based on a status attainment model of career advancement known as the Wisconsin Model (Sewell, Haller, & Ohlendorf, 1970; Sewell, Haller, & Portes, 1969). This model highlights how sociological factors (e.g., intelligence and aptitude) influence social-psychological development (which includes career development). Although there is substantial empirical evidence to support the model (e.g., Campbell, 1983; Hauser, Tsai, & Sewell, 1983; Jencks, Crouse, & Meuser, 1983; Saltiel, 1988), it has been criticized because of too little emphasis on structural factors that are believed to constrain career choice (Hotchkiss & Borow, 1990). The influence of structural factors (e.g., race, gender) has been well documented in the sociology literature (e.g., Amissah,1996; Farley & Allen, 1987; Peoples & Robinson,1996; Tienda & Lii, 1987; Waters & Eschbach, 1995). Consequently, in addition to the Wisconsin Model, the Career Path Tournament also incorporates aspects of Rosenbaum's (1976, 1981, 1984) Tournament Model, which emphasizes the negative effects of structural factors such as discriminatory tracking on career advancement. In discriminatory tracking, authority figures use demographic factors in deciding whether students should enter a vocational or academic track. For example, a teacher might discourage a girl in high school from taking advanced courses because of her sex. In the Wisconsin Model, social-psychological processes are considered to be a factor contributing to occupational attainment. One such process relates to feelings of aspiration to career advancement (Sewell et al., 1970; Sewell et al., 1969). In Wicklund and Gollwitzer's (1982) symbolic self-completion theory, individuals committed to career advancement endeavor to attain skills and qualities reflective of their chosen professional identity. Such skills and qualities serve as indications of aspects of identity (e.g., association membership, college degree) and are referred to as "symbols of completion" because they indicate that professional identity has been established. Round 3 of the tournament incorporates symbolic self-completion theory as a relevant aspect of occupational aspirations. In this round participants purchase symbols of professionalism (e.g., a briefcase, an association membership) that are instrumental in helping them advance to the final interview round. THE CAREER PATH TOURNAMENT Goals The Career Path Tournament has three goals. The first goal is to stimulate awareness of sociological barriers to career advancement. This awareness is heightened as participants are discriminated against in the safe context of the game. A second, and closely related, goal is to increase participants' awareness of feelings such as anger, anxiety, and confusion over past discriminatory treatment. A third goal is for students to gain a better understanding of the career advancement process as it is reflected in education practices, professional training, and hiring interviews. The final goal of the tournament is to increase awareness of the need to intentionally cope with discriminatory practices. …

In this issue of The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, Lawson uses the story of Dorothy's journey in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Baum, 1900) to illustrate the heroic journey metaphor, which typically begins with a "call to adventure." When you think of a call to adventure as it relates to the practice of developmental education, you might have a tendency to think of a ropes course, white-water rafting, or camping in the wilderness. But if you're an urban kid growing up in New York City, instead of perils far afield, the call to adventure might lead you to Dangerfield's--a popular Manhattan comedy club. That is, children and adolescents who are looking for elements commonly found in adventure-based education, such as risk, challenge, and a break with the familiar (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988), are attending stand-up comedy classes that are being taught in schools and comedy clubs. Premises, punch lines, and tags--oh my! To gain a better understanding of the phenomenon, I interviewed Karen Bergreen, a professional comedian who has been teaching children the art of stand-up for more than 5 years. The students in her classes range from 7 to 18 years of age, with an average age of approximately 11 years. The age of 11 may be a particularly sensitive period for humor development, as Fuhr (2002) found, because both boys and girls naturally increase their use of coping humor between the ages of 11 and 12. In a similar vein, Karen insists that she does not teach children to be funny; instead, she teaches them to tap into and develop their native abilities. She describes the classes as "boy-heavy" and wishes that more girls would take the classes to counteract what she describes as a female tendency to be overconforming. I asked her to explain the possible benefits of these classes for her students, and she replied, "It's great for their self-confidence and self-esteem. No one's ever appreciated their oddness. Audiences just love them!" She went on to explain that many of the kids in her classes tend to have "sort of a misfit quality" and that typically "these are not the popular kids." Some are though; she also teaches kids who are very popular and for whom this is just one of many extracurricular activities. I observed Karen one Saturday afternoon as she taught a 3-hour class. Karen has ground rules that prohibit the students from using material that is offensive, makes fun of ethnic or sexual minorities, or makes fun of another person's physical appearance. Furthermore, these kids are not merely telling naked, pedestrian jokes (or naked pedestrian jokes for that matter). Instead, they are taught and encouraged to develop reflective humor born out of the contexts of their lives. A primary goal for Karen's students is self-expression. The comic enactments or "act-outs" empower them to "stand up" to aspects of themselves or roles that they are discouraged from asserting in everyday life. Students also use act-outs to invite audience members to laugh at troubling aspects of themselves that they are courageous enough to publicly portray in the moment but also seek to better understand, accept, or more effectively integrate into their identities (Limon, 2000, pp. 4-7). Thus, stand-up can potentially facilitate identity formation and congruence. I spoke with six of Karen's students and asked them how they hoped to benefit from studying stand-up comedy. All of them expressed a desire to develop their senses of humor, to gain acceptance from others, and to become more socially skilled. A second primary theme related to identity formation issues. There were two girls in the class, and both appeared to be seeking to actualize aspects or sides of themselves that have been constrained by the expectations of others. Elizabeth, age 11, stated that she is perfectionistic, and as a result, her peers and teachers do not recognize her humorous side. She explained, "My dad is too serious--I don't want to be like that. …

Indigenous people such as the Cherokee of the southern Appalachians or the Tarahumara of northern Mexico's canyon lands maintained the practice of marking important places, such as passes through mountainous terrain, with cairns created by hundreds of travelers adding one stone at a time over the course of many years (Frazier, 2001). The early 20th-century French poet and essayist, Antonin Artaud, was fascinated by the Tarahumaran practice of cairn building. According to Artaud (1988), in addition to providing a useful landmark, cairn building was a spiritual practice affirming the necessity of maintaining awareness of healthy and unhealthy forces. Without this fundamental awareness the Tarahumaran individual would lack physical, spiritual, and emotional vitality. Because it commemorates the 10-year anniversary of the counselor impairment special issue, as well as heightens awareness of the factors promoting counselor wellness, the current special issue may be likened to a cairn. In 1996, the Journal of Humanistic Education and Development (now called the Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development), in coordination with the American Counseling Association (ACA) Task Force on Counselor Impairment, pubhshed a special issue titled "Professional Counselor Impairment and Renewal." The current special issue, titled "Toward a Culture of Counselor Wellness," is published in coordination with the ACA Task Force on Exemplary Practices for Counselor Wellness. As such, this issue also reflects a significant shift in the counseling profession's philosophy from an earlier focus on distress and impairment to a more recent focus on optimal health and wellness. Accordingly, the articles in this issue focus on proactive measures that counselors can take to promote wellness and prevent impairment. Moreover, this change in prevailing philosophy to an increased emphasis on wellness also illustrates how a body of knowledge can be compared to an organic life form. Like a cairn, a body of knowledge may cease to grow, or as in the case of cairns that are still growing, may continue to develop and thrive. Scholars who add to a body of knowledge feed a living cairn that often marks important breakthroughs, such as the recommended exemplary practices for preventing counselor impairment and promoting counselor wellness included in the pages of this issue. Accordingly, I wish to express my special thanks to Guest Coeditors Gerard Lawson and Elizabeth Venart, as well as to all of the contributing authors, for feeding the counselor wellness cairn. From the looks of this issue, it appears to be alive and thriving.