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Research apps allow to administer survey questions and passively collect smartphone data, thus providing rich information on individual and social behaviours. Agreeing to this novel form of data collection requires multiple consent steps, and little is known about the effect of non-participation. We invited 4,293 Android smartphone owners from the German Panel Study Labour Market and Social Security (PASS) to download the IAB-SMART app. The app collected data over six months through (a) short in-app surveys and (b) five passive mobile data collection functions. The rich information on PASS members from previous survey waves allows us to compare participants and non-participants in the IAB-SMART study at the individual stages of the participation process and across the different types of data collected. We find that 14.5 percent of the invited smartphone users installed the app, between 12.2 and 13.4 percent provided the different types of passively collected data, and 10.8 percent provided all types of data at least once. Likelihood to participate was smaller among women, decreased with age and increased with educational attainment, German citizenship, and PASS tenure. We find non-participation bias in substantive variables, including overestimation of social media usage and social network size and underestimation of non-working status.

Employment relationships are embedded in a network of social norms that provide an implicit framework for desired behaviour, especially if contractual solutions are weak. The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about major changes that have led to situations, such as the scope of short-time work or home-based work in a firm. Against this backdrop, our study addresses three questions: first, are there social norms dealing with these changes; second, are there differences in attitudes between employees and supervisors (misalignment); and third, are there differences between respondents’ average attitudes and the attitudes expected to exist in the population (pluralistic ignorance). We find that for the assignment of short-time work and of work at home, there are shared normative attitudes with only small differences between supervisors and nonsupervisors. Moreover, there is evidence for pluralistic ignorance; asked for the perceived opinion of others, respondents over- or underestimated the consensus in the (survey) population. Such pluralistic ignorance can contribute to the upholding of a norm even if individuals do not support the norm, with potentially far-reaching consequences for the quality of the employment relationship and the functioning of the organization. Our results show that, especially in times of change, social norms should be considered for the analysis of labour markets.

Researchers are combining self-reports from mobile surveys with passive data collection using sensors and apps on smartphones increasingly more often. While smartphones are commonly used in some groups of individuals, smartphone penetration is significantly lower in other groups. In addition, different operating systems (OSs) limit how mobile data can be collected passively. These limitations cause concern about coverage error in studies targeting the general population. Based on data from the Panel Study Labour Market and Social Security (PASS), an annual probability-based mixed-mode survey on the labor market and poverty in Germany, we find that smartphone ownership and ownership of smartphones with specific OSs are correlated with a number of sociodemographic and substantive variables. The use of weighting techniques based on sociodemographic information available for both owners and nonowners reduces these differences but does not eliminate them.

Background: Interregional job offers are an important mechanism of social mobility as they provide both career chances and opportunities to avoid unemployment. We know from the literature that couples have difficulties seizing these opportunities due to the unequal distribution of costs and benefits between partners. Consequently, couples generally show a lower willingness to move for a job offer for one of the partners. However, very little is known about the differences between men and women in assessing the attractiveness of a job-related household move. Objective: Focusing on all cohabitating couples, we address whether there are gender differences in willingness to move for a better job offer and how those differences can be explained. Methods: We employ a large household survey from Germany that includes a factorial survey experiment addressing willingness to move for a hypothetical job offer. Results: We find that (a) within couples, women show a lower willingness to move than men, but single women do not differ from single men; (b) variables resulting from standard theories on mobility contribute to the explanation of willingness to move; and (c) gender differences persist even after controlling for these variables. Conclusions: Women show a lower willingness to move for a job when they are living with a partner in a household, and this cannot be sufficiently explained by standard theories of household and family migration. Only gender norms contribute significantly to the explanation of these differences between sexes. Consequently, women are disadvantaged when considering interregional job offers Contribution: Our findings reveal that interregional job offers contribute to gender inequality by hampering the career options of coupled women. A comparison with early results from the United States reveals that this seems to be a general pattern that cannot be explained by standard household migration theories.

This article presents results from an experimental study in Germany designed to test the effectiveness of a novel protocol for matching participants in a national panel survey with interviewers employing computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) on selected sociodemographic features, including sex, age, and education. We specifically focus on the ability of the protocol to engender close matches between respondents and interviewers in terms of these features, using both theory and empirical evidence to suggest that this type of matching will improve cooperation rates in surveys employing CATI. We also focus on indicators of “success” at first contact (defined as a successful interview or establishment of an appointment for an interview) as a function of whether the matching protocol was in use on a given day and whether specific types of matches generated higher rates of success overall. We find strong evidence of the protocol effectively establishing close matches, and we also observe that matches based on education proved especially effective for rates of “success” in a panel survey that focused primarily on labor market topics. We conclude with thoughts on practical implementation of this approach in other settings and suggested directions for future work in this area.

Smartphones sind fur viele Menschen zu einem selbstverstandlichen Bestandteil des Alltags geworden. Sie werden neben der Nutzung zur Kommunikation, Unterhaltung und Information auch bei der Jobsuche und im Arbeitsalltag genutzt (Perrin 2017). Dies bietet Moglichkeiten Smartphones als Datenerhebungsinstrument fur die wissenschaftliche Forschung einzusetzen.

Survey researchers are increasingly seeking opportunities to link interview data with administrative records. However, obtaining consent from all survey respondents (or certain subgroups) remains a barrier to performing record linkage in many studies. We experimentally investigated whether emphasizing different benefits of record linkage to respondents in a telephone survey of employee working conditions improves respondents’ willingness to consent to linkage of employment administrative records relative to a neutral consent request. We found that emphasizing linkage benefits related to “time savings” yielded a small, albeit statistically significant, improvement in the overall linkage consent rate (86.0) relative to the neutral consent request (83.8 percent). The time savings argument was particularly effective among “busy” respondents. A second benefit argument related to “improved study value” did not yield a statistically significant improvement in the linkage consent rate (84.4 percent) relative to the neutral request. This benefit argument was also ineffective among the subgroup of respondents considered to be most likely to have a self-interest in the study outcomes. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the practical implications of these findings and offers suggestions for possible research extensions.

Many studies document the positive association between accessed social capital and wages. It is widely accepted that the underlying relationship is causal. However, most studies use cross-sectional data, and only a few test causal mechanisms. In our analysis, we first test a broad range of social capital indicators by applying fixed-effects panel data regression to a sample of currently employed and a sample of newly employed individuals. Second, we test reservation wages, network search, being offered a job without prior job search, and the number of job interviews as some of the theoretical mechanisms put forward to explain positive social capital effects. Overall, we find no empirical evidence for wage effects of the social capital measure and no evidence that any of the proposed mechanisms are empirically relevant.

There is evidence that survey interviewers may be tempted to manipulate answers to filter questions in a way that minimizes the number of follow-up questions. This becomes relevant when ego-centered network data are collected. The reported network size has a huge impact on interview duration if multiple questions on each alter are triggered. We analyze interviewer effects on a network-size question in the mixed-mode survey “Panel Study ‘Labour Market and Social Security’” (PASS), where interviewers could skip up to 15 follow-up questions by generating small networks. Applying multilevel models, we find almost no interviewer effects in CATI mode, where interviewers are paid by the hour and frequently supervised. In CAPI, however, where interviewers are paid by case and no close supervision is possible, we find strong interviewer effects on network size. As the area-specific network size is known from telephone mode, where allocation to interviewers is random, interviewer and area effects can be separated. Furthermore, a difference-in-difference analysis reveals the negative effect of introducing the follow-up questions in Wave 3 on CAPI network size. Attempting to explain interviewer effects we neither find significant main effects of experience within a wave, nor significantly different slopes between interviewers.

Welfare benefit recipients who are subject to benefit sanctions live below the subsistence level for a fixed period of time. Individuals with low education bear an increased risk of being sanctioned. Quantitative analyses of linked administrative and survey data indicate that this increased risk cannot be attributed to a lower motivation to work or a lower willingness to make concessions regarding job offers. Our analyses of qualitative interviews and individual case files reveal complex processes: Low cultural capital when dealing with administrative matters, a habitual distance vis-à-vis job center employees as well as previous negative attributions in case files can advance the sanctioning of low-skilled welfare recipients. In this way, sanctions contribute to the (re)production of social inequality.

D Arbeitslosigkeit und Leistungsbezug D.I Einführung und Resümee (Kerstin Bruckmeier) D.II Die Entwicklung der Arbeitslosigkeit nach Rechtskreisen (Thomas Rothe) D.III Qualifikationsspezifische Arbeitslosigkeit (Doris Söhnlein, Brigitte Weber, Enzo Weber und Ute Leber) D.IV Arbeitslosigkeit und Gesundheit (Stefanie Unger, Mark Trappmann und Johannes Eggs) D.V Personen und Haushalte im Grundsicherungsbezug (Kerstin Bruckmeier und Torsten Lietzmann) D.VI Verfestigung von Arbeitslosigkeit und Leistungsbezug (Kerstin Bruckmeier, Torsten Lietzmann und Thomas Rothe) D.VII Langzeiterwerbslosigkeit im europäischen Vergleich (Regina Konle-Seidl und Thomas Rhein) D.VIII Jugendarbeitslosigkeit im europäischen Vergleich (Hans Dietrich) Literatur zu Kapitel D

E Löhne und Lohnstruktur E.I Einführung und Resümee (Nicole Gürtzgen) E.II Löhne von Aufstockern (Kerstin Bruckmeier, Carina Sperber und Mark Trappmann) E.III Einstiegslöhne von Migranten (Agnese Romiti und Parvati Trübswetter) E.IV Regionale Lohnstrukturen (Michaela Fuchs) E.V Die Entwicklung der Tarifbindung (Peter Ellguth und Susanne Kohaut) Schwerpunkt E.VI Der deutsche Arbeitsmarkt nach der Einführung des gesetzlichen Mindestlohns (Philipp vom Berge, Mario Bossler, Johanna Eberle, Nicole Gürtzgen und Wolfram Klosterhuber) Interview mit IAB-Direktor Joachim Möller über die Auswirkungen des gesetzlichen Mindestlohns auf den Arbeitsmarkt Literatur zu Kapitel E

Survey methodologists are searching for covariates to use in nonresponse adjustment models, ultimately hoping to find variables that are highly correlated with both the outcomes of interest and the propensity to respond. These covariates can come from auxiliary data that provide information on both respondents and nonrespondents. Two such types of auxiliary data are interviewer observations (a form of paradata) and commercially available data on small areas or households. Interviewer observations intended for use in nonresponse adjustment can be specifically designed to match the outcome variables of interest, while commercial data provide a broad set of small area descriptors that may be correlated with multiple outcomes. This analysis examines these two data sources to determine which is more predictive of the outcomes of interest for a particular survey, thereby fulfilling one of the criteria for a good adjustment variable. The outcomes of interest in this analysis are self-reports of household income and receipt of unemployment benefits from a survey of labor market participation. The findings suggest that at this point in time, compared to commercial data, interviewer observations are better at predicting these outcomes, particularly in the subpopulation that the survey targets. Therefore, the observations share more (accurate) information with the true value, making them better for adjustment on this dimension. The results will inform the work of both researchers wishing to improve their nonresponse adjustments and survey managers looking to make better use of their survey budget.

Although interviewer observations have potential as auxiliary sources of information on key survey variables, questions about their quality temper enthusiasm for their use in survey estimation and responsive survey design. This study considers the utility of two interviewer observations (household income and household receipt of unemployment benefits) collected in a panel survey: the German Labor Market and Social Security (PASS) study. We find that the ability of the interviewer observations to accurately identify these household features is not as high as that of prior-wave survey reports on these features, but the observations do tend to capture accurate information for households with changing socioeconomic status over time (where prior-wave reports may be inconsistent with current-wave reports). The observations add modest predictive power to models for key survey variables that also include survey reports on related variables in prior waves, but this predictive power may be limited by relatively high error rates and variance in observation quality among interviewers. Finally, estimates based on panel households only improve slightly when including the observations in nonresponse adjustments, which is likely due to the inability of the observations to predict response propensity (given a relatively low attrition rate for the panel households). Implications for practice and directions for future research in this area are discussed in conclusion.

The lidA Cohort Study (German Cohort Study on Work, Age, Health and Work Participation) was set up to investigate and follow the effects of work and work context on the physical and psychological health of the ageing workforce in Germany and subsequently on work participation. Cohort participants are initially employed people subject to social security contributions and born in either 1959 (n = 2909) or 1965 (n = 3676). They were personally interviewed in their homes in 2011 and will be visited every 3 years. Data collection comprises socio-demographic data, work and private exposures, work ability, work and work participation attitudes, health, health-related behaviour, personality and attitudinal indicators. Employment biographies are assessed using register data. Subjective health reports and physical strength measures are complemented by health insurance claims data, where permission was given. A conceptual framework has been developed for the lidA Cohort Study within which three confirmatory sub-models assess the interdependencies of work and health considering age, gender and socioeconomic status. The first set of the data will be available to the scientific community by 2015. Access will be given by the Research Data Centre of the German Federal Employment Agency at the Institute for Employment Research (http://fdz.iab.de/en.aspx).

This article contributes to an ongoing debate about how to measure sensitive topics in population surveys. We propose a novel technique that can be applied to the measurement of quantitative sensitive variables: the item sum technique (IST). This method is closely related to the item count technique, which was developed for the measurement of dichotomous sensitive items. First, we provide a description of our new technique and discuss how data collected by the IST can be analyzed. Second, we present the results of a CATI survey on undeclared work in Germany, in which the IST has been applied. Using an experimental design, we compare the IST to direct questioning. Our empirical results indicate that the IST is a promising data-collection technique for sensitive questions. We conclude by discussing the limitations of the new technique and outlining possible improvements for future studies.

"The aim of the Panel Study 'Labour Market and Social Security' (PASS) is to provide a database which allows analysing the dynamics of welfare benefits receipt after the introduction of the Unemployment Benefits II in Germany in 2005. This entails the take up and ending of benefits receipt as well as the social situation of households and individuals receiving benefits, their subjective ways of coping with the situation and the contact to institutions providing the basic income support. PASS is set up as a household panel study with a sample of approx. 10,000 households interviewed in each wave. In addition to household interviews with the heads of the households about 15,000 interviews with individual household members aged 15 and older are carried out. This article provides an overview of the first six waves of PASS. It focuses on the survey's main goals, the questionnaire, the sampling and study design, the number of interviews, data access and methodological research on PASS. The article closes by describing the outlook for future developments." (Authors' abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zusammenfassung Der vorliegende Beitrag geht der Frage nach, wie das Ausmaß von Schwarzarbeit in Deutschland im Rahmen von Befragungen der allgemeinen Bevölkerung mçglichst valide geschätzt werden kann. In einem experimentellen Design wird die konventionelle direkte Befragungstechnik mit zwei Spezialtechniken, der Randomized-Response- Technik (RRT) und der Item-Count-Technik (ICT), verglichen. Die RRTund die ICT wurden für die Messung besonders heikler Verhaltensweisen entwickelt und sollen durch eine Erhçhung der Anonymität in der Interviewsituation sozial erwünschtes Antwortverhalten reduzieren. Unsere Befunde zeigen, dass die häufig angenommene Wirkung der beiden Spezialtechniken auf die Bereitschaft der Befragten, sozial unerwünschtes Verhalten zu berichten, nicht eindeutig ausfällt. Zudem werden theoretisch bedeutsame Einflussfaktoren von Schwarzarbeit diskutiert und deren Wirkung im Rahmen von multiplen Regressionsanalysen empirisch überprüft. Neben Gelegenheitsstrukturen sind vor allem soziale Normen gute Prädiktoren für die individuelle Entscheidung schwarzzuarbeiten.

Linking paradata from a survey on labor market participation to administrative data, this article has a unique opportunity to examine nonresponse and measurement error jointly and provide estimates for bias, variance, and mean square error. We find that increased contact attempts resulted in significant reductions in nonresponse bias. Measure- ment error increased somewhat with increased effort, though total bias was nevertheless reduced. One of the key survey indicators revealed an interesting case of counteracting effects of nonresponse and measure- ment error whereby increased effort to recruit nonrespondents led to an increase in mean square error with increased level of effort despite a reduction in nonresponse bias and constant measurement error.

PurposeThis paper aims to introduce a new large‐scale panel study (“PASS”) for research on the labour market, the welfare state and poverty that combines a sample of 6,000 recipient households with an equally large sample of the general population.Design/methodology/approachThe authors show how research goals and the specific population of the survey are accounted for in a tailored survey design.FindingsThe authors point the reader to new research potential created by the new study. The new potential is mainly derived from the sampling design (large recipient sample combined with a population sample), the direct measurement of poverty by a deprivation index, the detailed measurement of the migratory background, additional information (like attitudes, search intensity) for models of recipiency dynamics, and the linkage of the survey data with administrative data.Originality/valueThe data set described fills a major gap in the data‐infrastructure available for labour‐market research. From a methodological point of view it presents an innovative sampling design.

In einer Befragung unter Lehrenden an deutschen und deutschsprachigen schweizerischen Universitaten wurden mathematische Voraussetzungen fur ein erfolgreiches Studium in den Sozialwissenschaften und der Psychologie erhoben. Als besonders wichtige Voraussetzungen vor Beginn des Studiums werden von Lehrenden aller Facher grundlegende Inhalte der Sekundarstufe I hervorgehoben. Bei der Zusammenstellung eines Bruckenkurses mochten die Lehrenden jedoch die Stochastik im gleichen Umfang berucksichtigt wissen. Bezuglich der Stochastik zeigen sich deutliche Unterschiede zwischen unterschiedlichen Lehrendentypen: Ein Teil der Befragten sieht diese als wichtigste Voraussetzung, warend ein anderer Teil deren Kenntnis vor Beginn des Studiums fur vollig unwichtig halt. Hinsichtlich der ubrigen Teildisziplinen herrscht Einigkeit: Kenntnisse der Analysis und der Linearen Algebra sind von mittlerer Wichtigkeit. Fur relativ unwichtig befunden werden Geometrie, Spezialgebiete wie Spieltheorie, aber such einige Standardanforderungen der Oberstufenanalysis (z.B. Extremwertaufgaben, Kurvenscharen), bei der vor allen Dingen Lehrende der Psychologie nur einen geringen Bedarf sehen. Abgesehen vom Streitpunkt „Stochastik“ ergibt sich ein von den meisten Lehrenden geteiltes und fachunabhangiges Anforderungsprofil, das die Erstellung fachubergreifender Vorbereitungsmaterialien erlaubt.

Die Verwendung von Indikatoren zur Messung von Prestige und sozio-okonomischem Status setzt die Erhebung und Verkodung der beruflichen Tatigkeit voraus. Da dies mit einem verhaltnismasig grosen Aufwand verbunden ist, fehlen entsprechende Angaben haufig. In diesem Artikel werden Proxi-Skalen prasentiert, die sich in solchen Fallen als Ersatz fur herkommliche Instrumente zur Messung des Prestiges bzw. des sozio-okonomischen Status eignen. Diese Skalen werden auf der Basis von meist verfugbaren Merkmalen aus den vorhandenen Statusskalen abgeleitet. Nach der Prasentation der Proxi-Variablen wird deren Validitat uberpruft. Es zeigt sich, dass sie ungefahr die Halfte der Varianz der ursprunglichen Skalen reproduzieren konnen. Die Nutzlichkeit der abgeleiteten Skalen wird am Beispiel eines einfachen Statuserwerbsmodells dargestellt. Abschliesend wird diskutiert, wie die Proxi-Skalen an andere Datenstrukturen angepasst werden konnen.

The use of personal names for screening is an increasingly popular sampling technique for migrant populations. Although this is often an effective sampling procedure, very little is known about the properties of this method. Based on a large German survey, this article compares characteristics of respondents whose names have been correctly classified as belonging to a migrant population with respondentswho aremigrants and whose names have not been classified as belonging to a migrant population. Although significant differences were found for some variables even with some large effect sizes, the overall bias introduced by name-based sampling (NBS) is small as long as procedures with small false-negative rates are employed.

The set of best methods for sampling migrant populations includes name-based sampling. So far this is done using either ad hoc lists or onomastic dictionaries for the classification of names. This paper proposes a new name-based procedure which uses a Bayes-classifier for the n-grams of the name. The new procedure is fault-tolerant of alternate spellings, and also allows the classification of names that are not found in dictionaries. It was tested using the names of about 1.600 foreigners in the PASS panel. Finally, a CATI survey based on the new method in Hesse (Germany) is described.

Kapitel C befasst sich mit 'Übergängen am Arbeitsmarkt und Qualität von Beschäftigung'. Parallel zur günstigeren Arbeitsmarktentwicklung hat sich die Polarisierung des deutschen Arbeitsmarktes verschärft: Die Spreizung des Lohngefüges hat sich deutlich verstärkt, 'atypische' Beschäftigungsverhältnisse wie Leiharbeit, befristete Beschäftigung, Teilzeit- und Mini-Jobs haben stark an Bedeutung gewonnen. Die Autorinnen und Autoren dieses Kapitels analysieren die Entwicklung atypischer Beschäftigungsverhältnisse in den vergangenen Jahren und gehen der Frage nach, inwieweit diese Erwerbsformen eine Brücke in stabile und existenzsichernde Beschäftigung bilden.

Reservation wages indicate the wage threshold for which individual workers are inclined to supply their working capacity. In important theoretical approaches it is assumed that this threshold depends on the unemployment rate. If this is true, the variation of reservation wages might be an important force behind the regional wage curve, which has been estimated in many empirical studies. Up to now, the connection of regional unemployment with reservation wages has not been tested, since research possibilities depend on survey data which were not available. With the Labour Market and Social Security study (PASS), a new large panel survey in Germany, information on regional reservation wages is available. The empirical analysis with this data opens up the black box of the wage generation process and delivers insights about its determining factors. The analysis is based on job matching and efficiency wage theory which are used to derive a relationship between unemployment and reservation wages. Reservationslöhne bezeichnen die Schwelle, ab der Erwerbstätige bereit sind, ihre Arbeitskraft anzubieten. In einigen theoretischen Ansätzen wird angenommen, dass diese Schwelle von der Arbeitslosenquote abhängt. Wenn diese Annahme stimmt, kann die Variation von Reservationslöhnen ein wesentlicher Mechanismus für das Entstehen der Lohnkurve sein, die bereits in vielen empirischen Studien nachgewiesen wurde. Aufgrund der mangelnden Datenbasis konnte der Zusammenhang zwischen regionaler Arbeitslosigkeit und Reservationslöhnen bisher nicht geprüft werden. Mit dem 'Panel Arbeitsmarkt und soziale Sicherung' (PASS), einer neuen großen Panelstudie in Deutschland, sind nun Informationen zu regionalen Reservationslöhnen verfügbar. Die empirische Analyse dieser Daten eröffnet nunmehr den Blick in die Black Box des Lohnentstehungsprozesses und ermöglicht Einsichten in dessen Determinanten. Der Artikel verwendet die Job-Matching- und die Effizienzlohntheorie, um erwartete Zusammenhänge zwischen Arbeitslosigkeit und Reservationslöhnen abzuleiten.

Ein fur die empirische Sozialforschung wesentliches Charakteristikum wurde in den bisherigen Kapiteln noch kaum berucksichtigt: Das Testen von zuvor aufge-stellten Hypothesen anhand der vorliegenden Daten. In Kapitel 3 konnten wir bei der Untersuchung der Frage, ob Beziehungen in Cliquen stabiler sind als Beziehungen auserhalb von Cliquen, auf ein sehr einfaches Modell zuruckgrei-fen, das dieses Problem fur den Zusammenhang zweier dichotomer Variablen loste: (1) Beziehung eingebunden in Clique (ja/nein); (2) Beziehung aufrechter-halten (ja/nein). Fur die untersuchten Falle von Paarbeziehungen wurde dabei unterstellt, dass sie voneinander unabhangig sind. Die Statistik % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+- % feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn % hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr % 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9 % vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x % fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaCbeaeaacq % GHris5aSqaaiaadMgaaeqaaOWaaCbeaeaacqGHris5aSqaaiaadQga % aeqaaOWaaeWaaeaacaWGpbWaaSbaaSqaaiaadMgacaWGQbaabeaaki % abgkHiTiaadweadaWgaaWcbaGaamyAaiaadQgaaeqaaaGccaGLOaGa % ayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaOGaai4laiaadweadaWgaaWcba % GaamyAaiaadQgaaeqaaaaa!484B! \[ \mathop \sum \limits_i \mathop \sum \limits_j \left( {O_{ij} - E_{ij} } \right)^2 /E_{ij} \] ist in diesem Falle % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+- % feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn % hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr % 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9 % vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x % fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaeq4Xdm2aaW % baaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaaaa!388D! \[ \chi ^2 \] -verteilt mit einem Freiheitsgrad und ein gewohnlicher % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+- % feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn % hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr % 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9 % vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x % fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaeq4Xdm2aaW % baaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaaaa!388D! \[ \chi ^2 \] -Test gibt uns Auskunft daruber, ob wir signifikante Abweichungen von der Nullhypothese verzeichnen, dass die beiden Variablen voneinander unabhangig sind.

Verfahren zur Messung von Zentralitat wurden entwickelt, um die “wichtigsten” Akteure in einem Netzwerk zu lokalisieren. Dabei gibt es in Abhangigkeit von den unterschiedlichen Vorstellungen, wann ein Akteur fur ein Netzwerk wichtig oder zentral ist, unterschiedliche Mase. So kann man einen Akteur zentral nen-nen, falls er direkte Beziehungen zu besonders vielen anderen Akteuren hat. Um diese Art von Zentralitat zu messen, wurde das Konzept der degree centrality entwickelt. Beim Konzept der closeness centrality hingegen geht es darum fest-zustellen, welche Akteure hinsichtlich der gemessenen Beziehung besonders nah an allen anderen Akteuren liegen. Ein drittes Konzept von Zentralitat beruht auf der Vorstellung, dass ein Akteur fur ein Netzwerk dann zentral ist, wenn viele Verbindungen zwischen je zwei anderen Akteuren „uber ihn laufen”, d.h. wenn er haufig auf den kurzesten oder sogar den einzigen Verbindungen zwi-schen den anderen liegt (betweenness centrality, information centrality). Nach einem vierten, komplizierteren Konzept ist ein Akteur in dem Ausmas zentral, wie er Beziehungen (direkt oder auch indirekt, je nach Konzept) zu Akteuren hat, die selbst wiederum eine zentrale Lage (in einer der drei genannten Bedeutungen) im Netzwerk haben.

Diese Einfuhrung in die Analyse sozialer Netzwerke erhebt keinen Anspruch auf Vollstandigkeit. An dieser Stelle sollte aber der Einstieg in Standardmetho-den der Netzwerkanalyse gelungen sein. Einige Konzepte und Entwicklungen finden in dieser Einfuhrung jedoch keinen Platz mehr.

Bei der Analyse von Teilgruppen kam es darauf an, Mengen von Akteuren aus-zumachen, die durch die Netzwerkbeziehung in irgendeiner Weise relativ stark untereinander verbunden sind. Dagegen werden bei der Analyse von Positionen solche Akteure gesucht, die ein ahnliches Muster von Beziehungen aufweisen und somit in ahnlicher Weise in das Netzwerk eingebunden sind. Rollen schlieslich beziehen sich auf das Muster der Beziehungen zwischen Angehori-gen gleicher oder verschiedener Positionen.

In January 2005 the Social Code Book II came into effect in Germany. It introduced the new unemployment benefit II (Arbeitslosengeld II) as a major element and final stage of a series of labour market reforms termed the Hartz reforms which aimed at flexibilization of the German labour market and granted (re)integration of persons in need into the labour market precedence over pure economic subsidies. The new means tested benefit integrated the former social assistance (a welfare benefit) and the former unemployment assistance for long-term unemployed persons whose entitlement to unemployment insurance payments had expired. Its paradigm is summarized in the slogan “support and challenge” (in German “fordern und fordern”). Support for integration into employment was extended to groups that had formerly been far detached from the labour market. On the other hand status protection regulations were disestablished and pressure on recipients to take up any reasonable employment was increased by the introduction of benefit sanctions and active labour market programmes designed to test work motivation.