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This study aimed to implement a microencapsulated form of selected autochthonous lactic-acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from the cheese-production chain and natural rennet obtained from suckling lambs in the traditional production of hard sheep cheese, “Paški sir”, from the island of Pag, Croatia. Two different formulations of microparticles were prepared: (i) microparticles containing the strain of both Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Lactococcus lactis (S2) and (ii) microparticles containing both strains and natural rennet (S3). These formulations were used in the production of Paški sir cheese simultaneously with standard production using non-encapsulated commercial starter cultures and commercial rennet (S1). The number of Lc. lactis isolates decreased at day 30 and were not isolated during the remaining ripening process, whereas the number of L. plantarum remained stable throughout the ripening process. The level of LAB and the release of the rennet from microsphere formulations at the end allowed for the production of cheese with the same characteristics as the commercial product, indicating no negative interactions of natural rennet, bacterial culture, and chemical components of microparticles. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a microencapsulated L. plantarum (isolated from the abomasum of lambs) coupled with natural lamb’s rennet used in the production of hard sheep cheese. This pilot study showed the great potential for maintaining authenticity in cheese production by combining traditional and sustainable innovative technologies.

From 2018 to 2020, an experiment on effects of nitrogen top-dressing was conducted with Burley tobacco on the Zagreb experimental field at the Faculty of Agriculture. The experiment was set up according to the RCBD in four replications. Nitrogen was added to the top-dressing in five different variants: 1) control 100% from CAN; 2) 90% from CAN + 10% from microcapsules; 3) 80% from CAN + 20% from microcapsules; 4) 90% from CAN + 10% from microcapsules with chitosan; and 5) 80% from CAN + 20% from microcapsules with chitosan. During vegetation, number of leaves, length and width of the 9th leaf, topping height, and days to flowering were determined. After drying, the yield was determined, and the tobacco was classified into six classes. According to the analysis of variance, significant differences were established for share of I class, width od 9th leaf, topping height days to flowering in 2018, yield, share of VI class in 2019, yield, share of V class, and leaf number in 2020. Significantly, the highest yield had control compared to the variants 80% from CAN + 20% from microcapsules with chitosan in 2019 and the variants 80% from CAN + 20% from microcapsules in 2020. The control had the significantly highest share of I class in 2018. The highest leaf number in 2020 had the control and variant 90% from CAN + 10% from microcapsules with chitosan compared to the variant 80% from CAN + 20% from microcapsules with chitosan. The effect of microencapsulation has not given the expected results., Na Pokušalištu Agronomskog fakulteta u Zagrebu (2018. -2020.) postavljen je gnojidbeni pokus s duhanom tipa burley. Pokus je postavljen prema metodi SBR u četiri ponavljanja. U prihranjivanju je dodan dušik u pet različitih varijanti: 1. kontrola – 100% iz KAN gnojiva; 2. 90% iz KAN gnojiva+10% iz mikrokapsula; 3. 80% iz KAN gnojiva +20% iz mikrokapsula; 4. 90% iz KAN gnojiva+10% iz mikrokapsula s kitozanom; 5. 80% iz KAN gnojiva+20% iz mikrokapsula s kitozanom. Tijekom vegetacije određen je broj listova, dužina i širina 9. lista, visina biljke nakon zalamanja i početak cvatnje. Listovi su ručno ubrani i osušeni na zraku u hladu. Nakon sušenja određen je prinos i duhan je klasiran u VI klasa. Na osnovi provedene statističke analize varijance utvrđene su signifikantne razlike u udjelu prve klase, širini 9. lista, visini biljke nakon zalamanja i početku cvatnje u 2018., u prinosu i udjelu VI. klase u 2019., te prinosu, udjelu V. klase i broju listova u 2020. godini. Signifikantno najveći prinos imala je kontrola u odnosu na varijantu 80% prihrane iz KAN-a + 20% prihrane iz mikrokapsula s kitozanom u 2019. odnosno varijante s 80% prihrane iz KAN-a + 20% prihrane iz mikrokapsula u 2020. godini. Signifikantno najveći udio prve klase imala je kontrola u 2018. godini. Signifikantno najveći broj listova u 2020. godini imala je kontrola i varijanta 90% prihrane iz KAN-a + 10% prihrane iz mikrokapsula s kitozanom u odnosu na varijantu 80% prihrane iz KAN-a + 20% prihrane iz mikrokapsula s kitozanom. Učinak mikrokapsuliranja nije dao očekivane rezultate.

Biomass fly ash (BFA) from a biomass cogeneration plant was encapsulated into calcium alginate microspheres (ALG/Ca) and characterized. An FTIR analysis indicated that BFA loading weakened molecular interactions between ALG/Ca constituents (mainly hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions), thus changing the crosslinking density. SEM and AFM analyses revealed a wrinkled and rough surface with elongated and distorted granules. The in vitro release of BFA’s main components (K, Ca, and Mg) was controlled by diffusion through the gel-like matrix, but the kinetics and released amounts differed significantly. The smaller released amounts and slower release rates of Ca and Mg compared to K resulted from the differences in the solubility of their minerals as well as from the interactions of divalent cations with alginate chains. The physicochemical properties of the novel microsphere formulation reveal significant potential for the prolonged delivery of nutrients to crops in a safe manner.

Demands for higher production and consumer demand for healthier food have encouraged intensive research for alternative animal growth promoters in recent years. Research trends are focused on the development of new products enriched with feed additives to improve animal health and enhancing production. Many of these compounds are unstable in the presence of light, air, water, or high temperatures and need to be protected during processing, storage, and application. By encapsulatied in microparticles, feed additives are protected from harmful external influences, and their stability and functionality are not diminished. Microencapsulation technology is used to protect payload and improve bioavailability by controlled and targeted delivery to the digestive tract. It is particularly suitable for the addition of feed additives in ruminant’s nutrition, because the correct choice of microparticle material allows the release of the feed additives in the small intestine, and not in the rumen. With proper use, microparticle formulations are an effective tool in animal nutrition that delivers nutrients and/or drugs to a specific site at the desired rate. The paper summarizes laboratory studies on the application of microencapsulation technology in feeding ruminants and monogastric animals. Numerous results of the application of encapsulated feed additives have shown a positive effect on animal health, increased productivity without negative effects on the final product, and environmental protection.

An innovative approach to stimulate the production of plant secondary metabolites (PSM) is the use of encapsulated bioactive agents. Zinc-alginate microparticles (microspheres (ALG/Zn) and microcapsules (CS/ALG/Zn)) were applied near the root zone of soilless cultivated strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duchesne) to ensure a constant supply of an essential micronutrient zinc ions throughout the whole period of maturation. Both, ALG/Zn and CS/ALG/Zn had a positive effect on PSM (total polyphenols, total flavonoids, total anthocyanins, and flavan-3-ols) synthesis and increased antioxidant activity in two strawberry varieties (Albion and San Andreas). Treatments with Zn-alginate microparticles resulted in no visible damages on the plant and fruits. A two-year study revealed an increase of ~ 34% in total polyphenolic compounds and ~ 23% in total flavonoids in the San Andreas variety. The highest increase in antioxidant activity (ABTS (~ 37%) and DPPH (~ 38%)) was observed in the San Andreas variety treated with CS/ALG/Zn. Respectively high increase in anthocyanins was observed in both varieties (~ 54% and ~ 61%, respectively) treated with CS/ALG/Zn. Treatments with zinc alginate microparticles resulted in a successful stimulation of PSM synthesis and increased strawberries' nutritive value. Encapsulation of zinc ions proved to be simple, sustainable, and environmentally favorable to produce strawberries fortified with important bioactive compounds.

Morphological, rheological, and thermal properties of biopolymeric microcapsules loaded with novel plant growth regulators (2, 3-dehydroaspartic acid dimethyl ester (PGR1), Z-isomer of the potassium salt of 2-amino-3-methoxycarbonylacrylic acid (PGR2) and 1-methyl-3-methylamino-maleimide (PGR3)) were studied. Microcapsule formulations containing PGR2 or PGR3 had a granular surface structure with substructures, whereas those containing PGR1 had smooth surfaces with no grain substructures. All formulations had storage moduli (G ′) greater than loss moduli (G ′ ′), indicating viscoelastic solid behavior. The application of angular frequency over the range tested did not signifcantly change G’ and G’’ values indicating well-ordered structures for all samples. Compared to other formulations, the highest values of storage modulus, yield strength and fow point obtained for formulations with PGR3 indicated an advantage in terms of stability in various physical environments. Thermal analysis showed good thermal stability of all formulations and is consistent with rheological properties confrming well-ordered structures. Encapsulated PGRs afect the intensity of intermolecular forces (electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonds), thus changing the crosslinking density of the alginate network and the basic physicochemical properties of the formulations.

Encapsulated bioactive agents applied to the Lactuca sativa L. present an innovative approach to stimulate the production of plant secondary metabolites increasing its nutritive value. Calcium and copper ions were encapsulated in biopolymeric microparticles (microspheres and microcapsules) either as single agents or in combination with biocontrol agents, Trichoderma viride spores, a fungal plant growth mediator. Both, calcium and copper ions are directly involved in the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites and alongside, Trichoderma viride can provide indirect stimulation and higher uptake of nutrients. All treatments with microparticles had a positive effect on the enhancement of plant secondary metabolites content in Lactuca sativa L. The highest increase of chlorophylls, antioxidant activity and phenolic was obtained by calcium-based microparticles in both, conventionally and hydroponically grown lettuces. Non-encapsulated fungus Trichoderma viride enhanced the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites only in hydroponics cultivation signifying the importance of its encapsulation. Encapsulation proved to be simple, sustainable and environmentally favorable for the production of lettuce with increased nutritional quality, which is lettuce fortified with important bioactive compounds.

In recent years, the replacement of synthetic colorants with natural ones has attracted increasing consumers’ and market interest. Natural colorants include different groups of pigments, many of which possess also pronounced biological potential. This review addresses the main issues related to the use of natural pigments in foods, starting from the sources available in nature, their chemical properties, stabilization processes, and applications in real foods, as discussed in the scientific literature reported in the main databases relevant to this topic (Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar). Notably, several natural pigments are available to cover different needs in terms of hues and intensities, and whose use is permitted in foods by the main regulatory agencies. However, their use is still frequently limited by their higher price and lower stability than synthetic counterparts. This review discusses in detail the main sources for natural pigments, focusing on the recent trends towards those more economically favorable, such as microbial sources and agro- industrial residues. It also examines the most suitable stabilization systems to protect the highly reactive and unstable molecules of natural pigments from negative physical and chemical changes, as well as to minimize the interactions with food systems.

Plant secondary metabolites play an important part in the human diet. This research investigated the effect of alginate microspheres loaded with chemical (calcium or copper ions) or chemical and biological (Trichoderma viride) agents on plant secondary metabolites synthesis of two tomato varieties ('Vasanta' and 'Abellus') in two types of greenhouse cultivation, hydroponic and soil. Targeted and controlled release of active agents facilitates the root of plants to respond to the encapsulated agents and stimulate the synthesis of investigated plant metabolites both in hydroponic and soil types of cultivation. A significant increase in lycopene (up to 230%), total polyphenols content (up to 61%), and the overall antioxidant activity (up to 77%) of the tomato fruits was found for all of the treatments, respectively. Encapsulated chemical and biological agents remarkably stimulate the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites in tomato fruits indicating its great potential in the production of value- added foods.

To preserve its favorable health and nutritional qualities under processing conditions and oral ingestion, Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni leaf aqueous extract was encapsulated in composite microspheres based on calcium alginate. The addition of other biopolymers to alginate (ALG) (xanthan gum (XG), casein (CA)) influenced molecular interactions (mainly hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions) between microsphere constituents causing the change in microsphere structure and thus physicochemical properties (encapsulation effectiveness and capacity, surface morphology, swelling, stability) as well as the release of total polyphenols (TPC) in distilled water, NaCl solutions and in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The extent of crosslinking of calcium alginate was altered by blending with XG, CA, or XG + CA, but this did not affect the control mechanism of TPC release detected as diffusion. Results revealed the unsuitability of calcium alginate microspheres for implementation in food products with high water content, while composite microspheres showed desired reduction in TPC release. The best performance (the slowest release and the amount released) for implementation in functional food products containing NaCl exhibited composite microspheres with ALG + XG + CA. The desired prevention of microsphere degradation in simulated gastro fluids was achieved with ALG + XG + CA microspheres, while in simulated intestinal fluids all microspheres were decomposed and completely released TPC.

This review presents a critical analysis of food- grade delivery systems, which are suitable for the delivery of essential oils (EOs) for food applications. In particular, the main colloidal systems, investigated in vitro for the encapsulation of essential oils, such as nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, carbohydratebased carriers, protein-based carriers, liposomes and gelatin, have been described in details, with a special focus on their formulation, the type of oils encapsulated, and the fabrication processes, as well as on the resulting antimicrobial activity with respect to free oils. Currently, among these food-grade colloidal systems, only nanoemulsions, liposomes, and biopolymeric particles have found use in real foods, because of their easily- scalable production processes, loading capability with EOs, as well as cost- effectiveness. The main applications in foods are discussed, with reference to the possible methods of incorporation of encapsulated essential oils in foods, such as direct mixing, washing or infusion, and coating within active biopolymeric matrices. In addition, also the use of encapsulated essential oils in several other fields is presented, such as in organic farming, pest control or luring, as well as in pest-repellent textiles. Finally, the main regulatory issues are discussed.

Novel agroformulations for simultaneous delivery of chemical and biologically active agents to the plants were prepared by encapsulation of Trichoderma viride spores in calcium alginate microspheres. The impact of calcium ions concentration on the viability and sporulation of T. viride spores as well as on the microsphere important physicochemical properties were investigated. Intermolecular interactions in microspheres are complex including mainly hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions. T. viride germination inside matrix and germ tubes penetration out of microspheres revealed calcium alginate microspheres provide a supportive environment for T. viride growth. Differences in physicochemical properties and bioactive agents release behaviour from microspheres were ascribed to the changes in microsphere structure. Fitting to Korsmeyer-Peppas empirical model revealed the underlying T. viride release mechanism as anomalous transport kinetics (a combination of two diffusion mechanisms and the Type II transport (polymer swelling and relaxation of the polymeric matrix)). The increasing amount of T. viride spores in the surrounding medium is closely related to the release from microspheres and germination. The rate controlling mechanism of calcium release is Fickian diffusion. A decrease in the release rate with increasing calcium ion concentrations is in accordance with the calcium ions effect on the strength of the alginate network structure. T. viride germination inside microsphere diminished the amount of released calcium ions and slowed release kinetics in comparison with microspheres prepared without T. viride. The results indicated investigated agroformulations have a great potential to be used for plant protection and nutrition.

Summary There is a growing need for new formulations of carriers with better protection for bacterial inoculum. One of the newer techniques in inoculum making is encapsulation method. With this method, the whole bacterial cells are immobilized in defined space – matrix, where the cells are protected from environmental activities before use. Encapsulation of the inoculum was performed with ionic gelation method. The alginate-based microparticles (500-600 µm) containing viable B. japonicum strain were solidified in CaCl2. The initial number of viable bacteria in every sample was 9.0 log CFU/ml. Chitosan coated particles had a higher mortality rate than non-coated particles, with 1.3 log CFU/ml in lyophilized and wet microparticles stored at room temperature. High viability of B. japonicum was registered in wet particles stored at constant −20°C for thirty days with a viability rate of 8.84 log CFU/ml.

An overview of a research on Vitis vinifera plants treated with a chemical (calcium and magnesium ions) and biological (Trichoderma viride) agents simultaneously loaded in alginate microspheres was presented. Microspheres were applied at two growth stages: before flowering and berries pea-size. Physicochemical characteristics of leaves after the two growth stages and grapes were measured in terms of bioactive components content and antioxidant activity. After the treatments, vine leaves reached a significant increase in almost all measured parameters (polyphenols, antioxidant capacity, β-carotene, and chlorophyll) compared to the control. The highest total chlorophyll content was found after the treatment with microspheres containing Mg2+/Ca2+ cations, and T. viride. The treatments enhanced Vitis vinifera leaves in terms of bioactive potential and can be further used as a functional food. As compared to the control, somewhat elevated values of total polyphenols and antioxidant activity were found on the grape samples.

Alternatives and replacements for synthetic chemical-based plant protectants are required. In this study biopolymeric microspheres containing arthropod-derived apitoxin are explored as a possible novel environmentally friendly formulation for plant protection. Here we document the optimization process for microencapsulation of apitoxin into a stable formulation, for ready use in agricultural applications. Efficacy trials were carried out on three different beetle species at various developmental stages (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say, 1824.), Tenebrio molitor (Linnaeus, 1758.), Sitophilus granarius (Linnaeus, 1758.)). The encapsulated apitoxin has a steady initial and long residual effect, due to the slow release of apitoxin which is one of its main advantages over other conventional control methods. Microspheres loaded with apitoxin have a detrimental effect on insects, of which it is significantly better gastric compared to contact action (due to pH). The results showed that the highest and fastest mortality was obtained when the highest concentrations (0.6%) were applied, chosen to be economically acceptable. These important findings contribute to knowledge on the application and development of encapsulated apitoxin formulations, and their effectiveness, as an alternative eco-friendly control method in agricultural production.

Novel plant growth regulators (PGRs) based on the derivatives of dehydroamino acids 2,3-dehydroaspartic acid dimethyl ester (PGR1), Z-isomer of the potassium salt of 2-amino-3-methoxycarbonylacrylic acid (PGR2) and 1-methyl-3-methylamino-maleimide (PGR3) have been synthesized and their growth-regulating properties investigated. Laboratory testing revealed their plant growth-regulating activity. PGR1 showing the most stimulating activity on all laboratory tested cultures were used in field experiments. Results showed that PGR1 is a highly effective environmentally friendly plant growth regulator with effects on different crops. Biopolymeric microcapsule formulations (chitosan/alginate microcapsule loaded with PGR) suitable for application in agriculture were prepared and characterized. Physicochemical properties and release profiles of PGRs from microcapsule formulations depend on the molecular interactions between microcapsule constituents including mainly electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds. The differences in the microcapsule formulations structure did not affect the mechanism of PGRs release which was identified as diffusion through microcapsules. The obtained results opened a perspective for the future use of microcapsule formulations as new promising agroformulations with a sustained and target release for plant growth regulation.

This study addresses the application of native, multiple strain starter cultures for standardization of game meat sausages production. The designed starter cultures consisting of two indigenous Lactobacillus sakei and one Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains. These strains were used in both, the encapsulated and non-encapsulated form, in the game meat dough, individually or in combination, with eight treatments in total. Microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of the sausages were monitored throughout the manufacturing process, while sensory properties, biogenic amine content, and volatile compounds were evaluated in the final products. As revealed by rep-PCR, native starter cultures, encapsulated or non-encapsulated, had survived the whole sausage production process; however, to varying degrees. The application of indigenous decarboxylase negative Lb. sakei strains significantly (P 0.05) between tested treatments were found, although treatment with the Lb. sakei strains received the highest scores for the sensory traits including cross-section, odour, hardness, aroma, and overall acceptability. Combination of multi-strain Lb. sakei starter cultures resulted in growth prevention of undesirable microbiota, reduction of tyramine content and increased the acceptability parameters of full-ripened sausages, which make them good candidates for industrial as well as artisanal application. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s13197-020-04587-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Alginate microspheres loaded with two fermentation active agents, calcium cations and strain LS0296 identified as Lactobacillus sakei, have been prepared and characterized. The role of calcium cation is twofold, it acts as gelling cation and as fermentation active agent. Encapsulation and the presence of calcium ions in the same compartment do not inhibit the activity of LS0296. Molecular interactions in microspheres are complex, including mainly hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions. In vitro calcium cations and strain LS0296 release profiles were fitted to the Korsmeyer– Peppas empirical model. The calcium cation release process is driven at first by Fickian diffusion through microspheres and then by anomalous transport kinetics. The in vitro LS0296 release process is driven by Fickian diffusion through microspheres showing a much slower releasing rate than calcium cations. The release of LS0296 strain is followed by a decrease in the pH value. Results obtained give us a new insight into complex interactions between bacterial cultures and microsphere constituents. Prepared formulations of calcium alginate microspheres loaded with LS0296 could be used as a new promising tool and a model for different starter cultures encapsulation and use in the production of fermented foods.

The incidence of antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria has become an alarming clinical and social problem. Therefore, the demand for alternative antimicrobial compounds has increased. In this study, a chemical profile of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) venom (HBV) has been determined by HPLC and FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, and tested for antibacterial activity, as well as efficiency with regard to conventional antibiotics. The investigated HBV was of high quality with melittin and total protein contents of 70.10 ± 7.01%, and 84.44 ± 3.12 g/100 g, respectively. The purity of HBV was confirmed by FTIR-ATR spectral profiling, which revealed a unique pattern of absorption bands that are characteristic of its major fractions. In addition, HBV showed a broad spectrum of activity against all three tested biomasses of potentially pathogenic Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with MIC values ranging between 12.5 and 200 µg/mL, and MBC between 12.5 and 400 µg/mL. When compared to conventional antibiotics, HBV (400 µg) showed up to 27.8% efficiency of tetracycline (30 µg), 52.2% erythromycin (15 µg), 21.2% ciprofloxacin (5 µg), and 34.6% of ampicillin-sulbactam (20 µg). The overall results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of the analyzed HBV.

Zahtjevi za većom proizvodnjom i potražnja potrošača za zdravijom hranom potaknuli su posljednjih godina intenzivna istraživanja alternativnih promotora rasta životinja. Trendovi istraživanja su orijentirani na razvoj novih proizvoda obogaćenih dodacima stočnoj hrani s ciljem poboljšanja zdravlja životinja i boljeg prirasta. Mnogi od tih spojeva su nestabilni u prisutnosti svjetla, zraka, vode ili visokih temperatura te ih je potrebno zaštiti tijekom procesiranja, skladištenja i primjene. Inkapsulacijom u mikročestice dodaci stočnoj hrani se štite od štetnih vanjskih utjecaja, a ne umanjuju im se stabilnost i funkcionalnost. Tehnologija mikroinkapsulacije se koristi za zaštitu dodataka i poboljšanje biodostupnosti kontroliranom i ciljanom isporukom u probavni trakt. Posebno je pogodna za dodavanje u hranidbi preživača, jer se pravilnim izborom materijala mikročestice omogućava oslobađanje dodataka u tankom crijevu, a ne u buragu. Uz pravilno korištenje, formulacije mikročestica su učinkovit alat u hranidbi životinja koji isporučuje hranjive sastojke i/ili lijekove na određeno mjesto željenom brzinom. U radu su sažeta laboratorijska istraživanja primjene tehnologije mikroinkapsulacije dodataka stočnoj hrani u hranidbi preživača i monogastričnih životinja. Brojni rezultati primjene inkapsuliranih bioaktivnih spojeva pokazali su pozitivne učinke na zdravlje životinja, povećanje produktivnosti bez štetnih učinaka na konačni proizvod i zaštitu okoliša., Demands for higher production and consumer demand for healthier food have encouraged intensive research for alternative animal growth promoters in recent years. Research trends are focused on the development of new products enriched with feed additives to improve animal health and enhancing production. Many of these compounds are unstable in the presence of light, air, water, or high temperatures and need to be protected during processing, storage, and application. By encapsulatied in microparticles, feed additives are protected from harmful external influences, and their stability and functionality are not diminished. Microencapsulation technology is used to protect payload and improve bioavailability by controlled and targeted delivery to the digestive tract. It is particularly suitable for the addition of feed additives in ruminant’s nutrition, because the correct choice of microparticle material allows the release of the feed additives in the small intestine, and not in the rumen. With proper use, microparticle formulations are an effective tool in animal nutrition that delivers nutrients and/or drugs to a specific site at the desired rate. The paper summarizes laboratory studies on the application of microencapsulation technology in feeding ruminants and monogastric animals. Numerous results of the application of encapsulated feed additives have shown a positive effect on animal health, increased productivity without negative effects on the final product, and environmental protection.

Anti-insect photoselective nets present a new technology that combines light manipulation and pest protection in orchards. In this study, the effect of the anti-insect photoselective red net on the generative and vegetative traits was studied in an apple orchard near the city of Zadar, Croatia. 'Granny Smith' apples were grown on M9 rootstock and raised as slender spindles. The experiment consisted of two treatments: the trees covered with the red photoselective anti-insect nets (AGRITECH S. r. l., Eboli, Italy; mesh size of 2.4 × 4.8 mm) and uncovered trees as control. Yield, percentage of fruit with diameter >70 mm and fruit mass were not significantly different between treatments. L* color value was higher on fruit skin grown under the red net, and there was no significant difference in other color values (a*, b*, C* and h°). Soluble solids concentration (SSC) and total flavonoid content were significantly lower in fruit grown under red net than in control, and there was no significant difference in titratable acidity (TA), SSC/TA ratio, starch degradation and Streif maturity index. Red net proved to be effective against fruit red blush development (undesirable trait for 'Granny Smith' apple) and sunburn damage occurrence., Protuinsektne fotoselektivne mreže predstavljaju novu tehnologiju koja istovremeno kombinira manipulaciju svjetlom i zaštitu od štetnika. U voćnjaku jabuka pokraj Zadra (Hrvatska) istraživan je utjecaj crvene protuinsektne fotoselektivne mreže na generativne i vegetativne parametre jabuke 'Granny Smith'. Jabuke su uzgajane na M9 podlozi te su imale uzgojni oblik vretenastoga grma. Istraživanje se sastojalo od dvaju tretmana: stabla prekrivena crvenom protuinsektnom fotoselektivnom mrežom (AGRITECH S. r. l., Eboli, Italija; veličina okca od 2.4 × 4.8 mm) i nepokrivena stabla kao kontrola. Prirod, udio plodova s promjerom >70 mm i masa plodova nisu se signifikantno razlikovali između tretmana. Jabuke uzgajane ispod crvene mreže imale su signifikantno veću L* vrijednost parametra boje kožice, dok za ostale parametre boje nije zabilježena signifikantna razlika (a*, b*, C* i h°). Sadržaj topljive suhe tvari (TST) i ukupni sadržaj flavonoida bio je signifikantno niži u jabukama uzgajanima ispod crvene mreže, dok nije zabilježen signifikantan utjecaj crvene mreže na titracijsku kiselost (TA), TST / TA, stupanj razgradnje škroba i indeks zrelosti (Streif). Primjena crvene mreže pokazala se vrlo djelotvornom u smanjenju pojavnosti dopunskoga crvenila (koje je kod jabuke 'Granny Smith' nepoželjno svojstvo) i ožegotina od sunca na plodovima.

Biologically active compounds from aromatic and medicinal herbs are relatively unstable, have strong odors, can have low water solubility, and degrade quickly during the processing and storage. Encapsulation technology offers protection, controlled and targeted release of encapsulated biologically active compounds. Nanoencapsulation technology is always evolving, providing thus new methodology in preparation and application of delivery systems loaded with bioactive compounds. This review aims to summarize the most important information for the encapsulation of natural extracts using alternative technologies. We highlight the importance of the implementation of prepared nanomaterials loaded with bioactive compounds from herb extracts into real food. Furthermore, we highlight novel technologies that offer new capabilities like, for example, nanotubes or nanofibers may because of their high surface to volume ratio allow achieving desirable actions. Furthermore, nanocrystals offer unique capabilities to overcome problems regarding the poor solubility of compounds and even to increase the antioxidant properties of entrapped compounds. These types of nanosystems may be tailored to either act on the spot or with the delayed release of active compounds, whilst protecting the encapsulated biologically active compounds.

Short-day strawberry is a seasonal fruit, rich in nutrients and bioactive substances, which is why it is often called a “super” fruit. In terms of agro-technical complexity, it is a very demanding, intensive crop and is one of the most sensitive fruit species in which fertilization has great significance. One of the most important trace elements in strawberry fertilization is iron (Fe). Strawberry is sensitive to its deficiency whereby sensitivity varies between cultivars. Fe is an essential micronutrient and as a component of many vital plant enzymes, it plays a critical role in metabolic processes such as DNA synthesis, respiration, and photosynthesis. Near Zagreb (Croatia) in the year 2019 three different treatments, 1) Fe/Zn- alginate microspheres ; 2) Fe/Znalginate/chitosan microcapsules ; and 3) foliar iron - Fe-EDDHA solution were applied to short-day strawberry cultivar ‘Joly’. Fruits were measured in terms of physicochemical properties (color and firmness, total soluble solids, and total acidity), phytochemicals content (polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins), and antioxidant capacity. The total yield was not significantly affected by an application of any treatment. All treatments affected the total acidity, firmness, and color of the fruit. Foliar treatment with Fe-EDDHA significantly increased firmness and decreased acidity of fruits, respective to the untreated plants (control). All treatments significantly improved the sweetness of fruits when compared with untreated plants.

The development of antimicrobial polymers is a priority for engineers fighting microbial resistant strains. Silver ions and silver nanoparticles can assist in enhancing the antimicrobial properties of microcapsules that release such substances in time which prolongs the efficiency of antimicrobial effects. Therefore, this study aimed to functionalize different polymer surfaces with antimicrobial core/shell microcapsules. Microcapsules were made of sodium alginate in shell and filled with antimicrobial silver in their core prior to application on the surface of polymer materials by dip-coating methodology. Characterization of polymers after functionalization was performed by several spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. After the characterization of polymers before and after the functionalization, the release of the active substances was monitored in time. The obtained test results can help with the calculation on the minimal concentration of antimicrobial silver that is encapsulated to achieve the desired amounts of release over time.

Jedan je od važnijih globalnih problema u proizvodnji hrane zaštita usjeva od štetnih organizama. Za suzbijanje štetnih organizama najviše se koriste sintetske kemikalije koje su uglavnom vrlo toksične te ugrožavaju zdravlje ljudi i životinja te onečišćuju okoliš. Biopesticidi temeljeni na eteričnim uljima (EO) mogli bi zamijeniti ili nadopuniti djelovanje kemijski sintetiziranih pesticida u suzbijanju štetnih organizama. EO-i izolirani iz različitih biljaka pokazuju toksične i odbijajuće učinke na različite štetne organizme. Njihova su prednost prije svega povoljna ekotoksikološka svojstva. Glavni je problem u korištenju EO-a (posebice u poljskim uvjetima) njihova kemijska nestabilnost u prisutnosti zraka, svjetla, vlage i visokih temperatura, što dovodi do isparavanja i degradacije bioaktivnih sastojaka. Tehnologija inkapsulacije omogućuje osjetljivim tvarima poput EO-a fizičko obavijanje zaštitnim materijalom. Aktivni sastojci EO-a tako su zaštićeni od nepovoljnih vremenskih utjecaja, gubitaka isparavanjem, neželjenih međudjelovanja, itd. Formulacije mikročestica ispunjenih s EO-ima i svojstvom kontroliranog otpuštanja imaju velik potencijal primjene u suzbijanju brojnih vrsta štetnih organizama u različitim poljoprivrednim sustavima., One of the most important global problems in food production is the protection of crops from harmful organisms. Usually, to control harmful organisms, synthetic chemicals are used. Generally, they are very toxic endangering human and animal health as well as pollute the environment. Biopesticides based on essential oils (EO) could replace or supplement the action of chemically synthesized pesticides in pest control. EOs isolated from various plants show toxic and repulsive effects on various harmful organisms. Their advantage is primarily due to the favorable ecotoxicological properties. The main problem in the use of EO (especially under the field conditions) is their chemical instability in the presence of air, light, moisture, and high temperatures resulting in their evaporation and decomposition. Encapsulation technology allows sensitive substances such as EO to be physically wrapped in protective material. Thus, the active compounds of EO are protected from adverse weather conditions, evaporation losses, unwanted interactions, etc. Microparticles loaded with EOs and the sustained release property have great potential for application in controlling many types of pests in various agricultural systems.

Hydroponic cultivation makes it possible to harvest strawberries (Fragaria x ananasa) at a time when this was not possible before. This breeding achieves somewhat earlier fruiting, a longer harvesting period, higher yield and fruit quality. To achieve this, with appropriate microclimatic conditions, an adequate substrate, regular fertigation and protection against disease and pests are required. Zinc is one of the most important trace elements in strawberry flowers and fruits. Zinc deficiency affects the decreased growth of stamens and the growth of pollen tubes, which can result in deformation of the fruit. Zinc microparticles are one way to improve the nutritional properties (total polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity) of strawberry fruit. In this study, the experiment was set up according to the split-plot method in three repetitions. The treatment was performed on two different strawberry varieties: Albion and San Andreas. The strawberries were treated with microparticles containing zinc as the active substance and microparticles containing zinc and an additional layer of chitosan. The results showed a positive effect of microparticles on strawberries.

The brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys St&aring, l, 1855) is an invasive polyphagous species that threatens fruit growing both in the United States and Europe. Many pesticide active ingredients have been studied in H. halys management, but for sustainable fruit growing, which implies the reduction of chemical harm to the environment, new safe insecticides should be implemented into the practice. For this purpose, novel green insecticide based on natural polyphenols of species Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Bertoni and Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott 1821 was developed. Stevia leaves (SLE) and Aronia pomace (APE) aqueous extracts were prepared using the ultrasound-assisted extraction method. Optimal extraction conditions for bioactive compounds (total polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and flavan-3-ols, respectively) and antioxidant activity were determined using response surface methodology. Bioactive compounds rich SLE and APE were encapsulated in calcium alginate microparticles by the ionic gelation method. Physicochemical characteristics (morphology, size, encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, and swelling) of microparticles showed very good properties with especially high encapsulation efficiency. Fitting to simple Korsmeyer&ndash, Peppa&rsquo, s empirical model revealed that the underlying release mechanism of polyphenols is Fickian diffusion. SLE loaded microparticles showed very good pesticidal efficiency against Halyomorpha halys, especially on younger larval stages after both contact and digestive treatment. Microparticles loaded with APE did not achieve satisfactory digestive efficiency, but a certain toxic impact has been observed at contact application on all H. halys growth stages. Microparticles loaded with SLS exhibited prolonged insecticidal action against H. halys and could be a potential candidate as a green insecticide whose application could increase fruit growing safety.

It is well known that cheese yield and quality are affected by animal genetics, milk quality (chemical, physical, and microbiological), production technology, and the type of rennet and dairy cultures used in production. Major differences in the same type of cheese (i.e., hard cheese) are caused by the rennet and dairy cultures, which affect the ripening process. This review aims to explore current technological advancements in animal genetics, methods for the isolation and production of rennet and dairy cultures, along with possible applications of microencapsulation in rennet and dairy culture production, as well as the challenge posed to current dairy technologies by the preservation of biodiversity. Based on the reviewed scientific literature, it can be concluded that innovative approaches and the described techniques can significantly improve cheese production.

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is economically the most important leafy vegetable. Beside the high yield, focus is on production of lettuce with high nutritive value, rich in phytochemicals important for the human health. One of the methods to improve agronomic and qualitative traits is the application of microparticles containing chemical or/and biological agent. Based on the known positive effect of biopolymer microparticles on different vegetable species, a study was conducted to test the application of different microparticle formulations on soil-grown lettuce. Eight types of biopolymer microparticles made of sodium alginate as a carrier with or without chitosan coating, with active ingredients (Ca2+, Cu2+, Ca2+/Trichoderma viride, Cu2+/T. viride), T. viride spores suspended in saline solution (0.85%) and untreated control were tested in one-factorial trial with the batavia lettuce cv. ‘Melina’. Microparticles (4 g per plant) were incorporated into soil together with seedlings planting. Lettuce biomass, marketable rosette mass and rendement were not affected by microparticles application. The highest yield (6.82 kg m-2) was obtained by application of T. viride spores and it was significantly higher than yield with application of Ca2+ chitosan alginate (5.48 kg m-2) microparticles. The application of T. viride resulted with significantly higher dry matter content (7.07%) compared to other treatments (5.68-6.27%) and control (6.20%). In comparison to the untreated control and treatment with T. viride spores, significant increase of total chlorophyll (1986 µg g-1 dw), polyphenols (4.58 mg EGK g-1 dw) and flavonoids content (9.65 mg EK g-1 dw), and antioxidant activity (21.92 µmol ET g-1 dw) was recorded for the application of biopolymer microparticles containing the Ca2+. Based on the obtained results, the application of biopolymer microparticles could be recommended in lettuce open field growing with the aim of increasing the phytochemicals content.

To enhance storage life and post-storage quality of fresh goji berries, three treatments with lecithin (1, 5, 10 g·L-1) and two storage times (8, 16 days) were evaluated. The significant effects on the physiological and biochemical parameters were varied. 1 g·L-1 lecithin showed its main effects after 8 days of storage by reduction in total weight loss and decay, SSC/TA ratio (also at 16 days), and chlorophyll content and with highest scores of sensory attributes (also at 16 days). 5 g.L-1 lecithin showed its main effects after 16 days of storage: highest SSC, highest TA (also at 8 days), highest TPC, only significant reduction in DPPH antioxidant activity, and highest total flavonoid content. 10 g.L-1 lecithin showed its main effects after 8 days of storage with highest SSC, chlorophyll content, total flavonoid, DPPH, and ABTS antioxidant activity (also at 16 days), but with least scores of sensory attributes.

Goji berries are considered as the latest super food or fruit due to its excellent nutritive and medicinal properties and usually consumed and marketed as a dried or as a juice due to its short storage life and lack of information about its postharvest behavior. The current study was an attempt to prolong its storage life simply by using differ- ent storage temperatures (–2, 0, 10 and 20 °C) and evaluat- ing the post-storage biochemical and fruit quality. The fruits stored at 0 °C and –2 °C appeared with lowest weight losses (13.08 and 14.95%) and significantly different from fruit stored at 10 °C (18.29%) for 12 days of storage. Whereas, the fruits stored at 20 °C deteriorated within a day due to fungal decay. However, some storage disorders like cracking, peel disorder, shriveling were observed in the fruits stored under –2 and 10 °C. There were significant differ- ences in the phytochemical attributes like SSC, TA, SSC/TA ratio, total polyphenols, DPPH, ABTS and β- carotenewhile the amount of anthocyanins and CIE color variables were found non-significant. In addition, the fruits stored under 0 °C appeared fresh and healthy and hence received highest scores during sensory analysis and strongly recommended for storage of this important horticultural commodity.

Trends in microencapsulation application in agriculture are focused on the preparation of complex biopolymer based microparticles, i.e. preparation of microspheres or microcapsules simultaneously loaded with chemical and biological agents to achieve a triple effect: protection, nutrition and production of plants fortified with important bioactive compounds.

The structure-property relationship in alginate microparticles (microspheres and microcapsules prepared with or without Trichoderma viride spores (Tv) was investigated. Surface morphology, structure and release behavior from alginate microparticles strongly depend on calcium concentration and presence of Tv and chitosan layer. All microparticles exhibited a granular surface structure with substructures consisting of abundant smaller particles. In vitro active agents release study revealed that the increase in calcium cation concentration reduced the release rate of Tv (~84% for microspheres ; ~57% for microcapsules) and calcium cations (~20% for microspheres ; ~23% for microcapsules). The average decrease in k values due to chitosan layer addition is 41% for Tv and 93% for calcium ions, respectively. The underlying Tv release mechanism from microspheres is anomalous transport kinetics, whereas from microcapsules is controlled by Type II transport. The differences in microparticle surface properties did not affect the mechanism controlling calcium ions release detected as diffusion through microparticles.

A new copper complex, trans-diaqua-trans-bis [1-hydroxy-1,2-di (methoxycarbonyl) ethenato] copper (abbreviation Cu(II) complex), was synthesized and its plant growth regulation properties were investigated. The results show a sharp dependence of growth regulation activity of the Cu(II) complex on the type of culture and its concentration. New plant growth regulator accelerated the development of the corn root system (the increase in both length and weight) but showed a smaller effect on the development of the wheat and barley root systems. Stimulation of corn growth decreased with increasing Cu(II) complex concentration from 0.0001% to 0.01% (inhibition at high concentrations—0.01%). The development of corn stems was also accelerated but to a lesser extent. Chitosan-coated calcium alginate microcapsules suitable for delivery of Cu(II) complex to plants were prepared and characterized. Analysis of the FTIR spectrum showed that complex molecular interactions between functional groups of microcapsule constituents include mainly electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds. Microcapsules surface exhibits a soft granular surface structure with substructures consisting of abundant smaller particles with reduced surface roughness. Release profile analysis showed Fickian diffusion is the rate-controlling mechanism of Cu(II) complex releasing. The obtained results give new insights into the complexity of the interaction between the Cu(II) complex and microcapsule formulation constituents, which can be of great help in accelerating product development for the application in agriculture

Background High-added value biological compounds (BACs) from herbal and plant sources, such as essential oils (EO), antioxidants and volatile compounds, often exhibit remarkable features, ranging from nutritive and medicinal properties, as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, which can be exploited in the production of functional foods. However, most BACs exhibit low water solubility, strong off-flavors/odors, and are generally unstable and easily degraded under common processing and storage conditions. Encapsulation is a technology that enables the delivery in food systems, the protection, as well as the controlled and targeted release of BACs. Scope and approach The aim of this review is to summarize the most important information for encapsulation of natural extracts using unconventional technologies. Key findings and conclusions Encapsulation is an excellent choice to stabilize BACs, and in particular EOs, and mask their strong flavors and odors. In particular, spray drying is one of the most economic and common encapsulation technologies. However, the challenges of reducing the operating costs, of developing high-throughput processes, of minimizing the use of organic solvents, and of increasing the level of functionality of the encapsulation systems are driving the research towards the implementation of innovative strategies and non-conventional methods, which incorporate the concepts of Green Food Processing.