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Investigating the direction of changes in functional diversity involving successional pathways and historical disturbances may be a promising tool for predictions of the effectiveness of the seminatural meadows conservation, with great emphasis on formulation of more cost‐effective restoration strategies. The goal of this research was to assess the differences in long‐term shifts in the functional diversity of plant species in seminatural wet meadows unmanaged for the last 40 years, under the influence of different successional pathways and historical disturbances. Using ordination techniques, linear mixed‐effect models, a set of plant functional traits and parameters of functional diversity, we assessed the importance of habitat filtering, competition, and niche partitioning in shaping community assembly changes over time. The most dramatic shifts in functional diversity were found in the Carex acutiformis successional pathway after topsoil removal, where colonization by successional inhibitors was the main driver causing decreases in functional dispersion and divergence. This was expressed as a decrease in the importance of habitat filtering and replacement of specialized species by competitors with heavier seeds and higher specific leaf area. Regarding the C. cespitosa and Salix cinerea pathways, the magnitudes of shifts in functional diversity were milder and differed less between the historical topsoil removal and mowing treatments, thereby maintaining a large role for niche partitioning in shaping the vegetation structure. The results of our study highlight the importance of tussock sedges and shrubs as effective buffers against the functional homogenization of meadows driven by the decreases in functional diversity of plant species, even from a long‐term perspective., The goal of this research was to assess the differences in long‐term shifts in the functional diversity of plant species in seminatural wet meadows unmanaged for the last 40 years, under the influence of different successional pathways and historical disturbances. The most dramatic shifts in functional diversity were found in the Carex acutiformis successional pathway after topsoil removal, where colonization by successional inhibitors was the main driver causing decreases in functional dispersion and divergence. Regarding the C. cespitosa and Salix cinerea pathways, the magnitudes of shifts in functional diversity were milder and differed less between the historical topsoil removal and mowing treatments, thereby maintaining a large role for niche partitioning in shaping the vegetation structure. The results of our study highlight the importance of tussock sedges and shrubs as effective buffers against the biotic homogenization of meadows driven by the simplification of functional composition, even from a long‐term perspective.

The stromata of Epichloe fungi are structures covering part of the stem of grasses. Under the fungal layer, still green tissues of the plant survive, although the development of the new leaves is inhibited. Stromata are the places where conidia and ascospores develop. Also, here Botanophila flies dine on mycelium, lay the eggs, defecate, and the larvae develop. The interaction of the three symbionts was analyzed concerning the organisms' adaptation to understand the differences in physiology and ecology of this microenvironment that support stable symbiosis spreading presently in Europe since the beginning of the XXI century. For analysis of the infrared radiation emitted by stromata, a high-resolution infrared camera FLIR E50 was used. The visualization of stromata temperature profiles was shown in the form of pseudo-colored (false) infrared images. The 13C discrimination was used to characterize photosynthesis of the plant tissue enclosed within the stromata. The stromata had a substantially lower temperature than the green plant tissues. The difference reached ~5.6°C during midday hours, whereas it was smaller in the evening, reaching only ~3.6°C. The mycelium of Epichloe cultivated on agar showed about 2°C lower temperature in comparison to the surrounding. The plant tissues enclosed within the stroma were photosynthetically active, although this activity was of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) type and less involved in heat dissipation during the day. The stromata, built by fungal hyphae, on which fungal reproductive structures develop, form a cool shelter. This shelter provides a place for the larvae of Botanophila flies.

Hyperspectral remote sensing of plants is widely used in agriculture and forestry. Fast, large-area monitoring is applied, among others, in detecting and diagnosing diseases, stress conditions or predicting the yields. Using available tools to increase the yields of most important crop plants (wheat, rice, corn) without posing threat to food security is essential in the situation of current climate changes. Spectral plant indices are associated with biochemical and biophysical plant characteristics. Using the plant spectral properties (mainly chlorophyll red light absorption and near-infrared range light reflectance in leaf intercellular spaces), it is possible to estimate plant condition, water and carotenoid contents or detect disease. More and more often, based on commonly used hyperspectral vegetation indices, new, more sensitive indices are introduced. Furthermore, to facilitate data processing, artificial intelligence is employed, i.e., neural networks and deep convolutional neural networks. It is important in ecological research to carry out long-term observations and measurements of organisms throughout their lifespan. A non-invasive, quick method ensures that it may be used many times and at each stage of plant development.

Resource allocation studies of clonal plants whose individuals form networks of interconnected ramets are very challenging. In addition, the presence of mycorrhizal fungi may further modify resource allocation. In this study, we sought to determine whether the impact of mycorrhizas on resource allocation occurs throughout the entire ramet network. The optimal division of resources is decisive for the potential ecological and evolutionary success of an individual. The study was carried out under uniform conditions on Hieracium pilosella (L.) networks with the same age. Data related to growth and reproduction were collected from the total of 47 mother plants and 210 daughter ramets that they generated. The differences between AMF-inoculated and non-inoculated plants with respect to continuous variables were tested using a one-way ANOVA. Mother plants that were inoculated with a mycorrhizal fungus displayed lower belowground dry biomass than the non-inoculated plants. The presence of the fungus did not affect the allocation of resources to other examined traits of the mother plants. The daughter ramets formed by the fungus-inoculated plants had larger rosette diameters and produced more inflorescence heads than did the non-mycorrhizal daughter ramets. In our study, the positive effect of mycorrhizas on resource allocation was observed only in the next vegetatively produced generation. The distribution of resources is a dynamic process and, from an evolutionary standpoint, it cannot be approached as a mere balance of benefits and losses observed at a given time point.

Fungi of the genus Epichloë (Clavicipitaceae, Ascomycota) cause choke disease in many grass species. The disease manifests itself as fungal stromata that form around developing inflorescences, thereby suppressing their maturation. Economic losses in agricultural production due to choke have long been known in the U.S.A. and France, but attempts to control choke disease have not been successful. The interaction between Epichloë typhina (Pers.) Tul. & C. Tul. and its naturally occurring fungal hyperparasite, Clonostachys epichloë (Speg.) Schroers (sexual morph Bionectria epichloë) was investigated in populations of the grass Puccinellia distans (L.) Parl. Fungal hyperparasites occur widely in nature, and many are successfully used commercially as biological control agents against plant pathogenic fungi. Microscopy of Epichloë stromata infected with C. epichloë revealed a lack of asci with ascospores in perithecia and damage to mycelia at sites colonized by C. epichloë. The ability of C. epichloë to colonize E. typhina was confirmed via two in vitro experiments. The percent inhibition of growth of E. typhina strains by C. epichloë varied from 18.40 to 46.50%, and the mycoparasite colonized up to 100% of Epichloë mycelia in a precolonization experiment. We discuss the possibility of using C. epichloë to control choke disease caused by E. typhina in grass populations.

Epichloë fungi are endophytes within grasses that can form stromata on culms of their hosts. Botanophila flies visit the stromata for egg laying and in the process can vector spermatial spores, thereby cross fertilising the fungus. Following egg hatch, larval flies consume fungal tissue and spores. Thus, Epichloë individuals with traits that limit larval consumption could be at a selective advantage. We assessed Botanophila fly larvae from sites within the United States and Europe for infection by the bacterial sexual parasite Wolbachia through amplification of the Wolbachia surface protein gene (wsp). Nearly 70% of fly larvae in our samples were infected by Wolbachia. This is the first record of infection by Wolbachia within Botanophila and could have far reaching effects on not only the fly host, but also the Epichloë fungi upon which Botanophila feeds as well as the grass host within which the fungi live. For example, infection by Wolbachia could limit consumption of Epichloë spores by Botanophila larvae if the bacteria promoted premature larval death., Mycology, 10 (1)

Grzyby to organizmy występujące we wszystkich strefach klimatycznych, zasiedlające głównie lądy. Dzięki dopasowującym się do warunków środowiska mechanizmom wzrostu, tworzą podziemne sieci, zajmujące znaczną powierzchnię. W obrębie sieci rosnącej w heterogenicznym środowisku zachodzi transport związków odżywczych przez translokację długodystansową. Translokacja ma kluczowe znaczenie dla przetrwania grzybni, ponieważ strzępki rosnące w rejonie ubogim w pokarm są wspierane przez znajdujące się w części zasobniejszej. Grzyby mogą wchodzić w interakcje z innymi organizmami. Wykorzystując czynniki Myc aktywują zespoły genów roślinnych, co umożliwia rozwój grzybni, kolonizację korzeni rośliny, a w efekcie prowadzi do zawiązania mikoryzy. Sieci mikoryzowe wykorzystywane są przez rośliny do komunikacji i ostrzegania się przed niebezpieczeństwem. Natomiast ludzie wykorzystują właściwości sieci grzybowych m.in. do planowania przebiegu sieci komunikacyjnych, mykoremediacji czy produkcji opakowań biodegradowalnych. Przyjmując, że na świecie występuje ok 1,5 miliona gatunków grzybów, z czego znanych jest jedynie ok. 10%, możemy przypuszczać, jak wiele ich niezwykłych właściwości pozostaje do odkrycia.

Railway territories are man-made habitats forming corridors for non-native species migration. In this study, we assessed non-native species occurrence in plant communities along a railway route of the Bialowieza Primeval Forest in Poland in relation to adjacent plant community type and microhabitat (embankment western and eastern sides of the railway track, intertrack space). An 11-km fragment of a narrow-gauge railway route in the western part of the Bialowieza Primeval Forest was investigated. This fragment was divided into 416 sections where all observed non-native species were identified, and all individuals, ramets and tussocks were counted. We discovered 12 non-native taxa, most of which (8 species) originated from North America. The highest average number of non-native species per section was recorded in the vicinity of the Circeo-Alnetum community. Statistically, more non-native species occurred on the western embankment than on the eastern one and in the intertrack space. The use of the narrow-gauge railway in the Bialowieza Forest has increased the risk of establishment of invasive species in local plant communities. The Bialowieza Forest is a refuge for native biodiversity of the utmost importance. Thus, continuous monitoring of the occurrence of non-native species is necessary for the preservation of native plant communities in the vicinity of the narrow-gauge railway route assessed in this study.

Long-lived clonal plants provide an optimal place for the natural storage of seeds as a ‘non-soil seed bank’. We tested the hypothesis that the size and species diversity of a non-soil seed bank deposited within the clonal plant Carex cespitosa depends mainly on the plant's size. To verify this hypothesis, an experiment was conducted on an unmown meadow in the Bialowieza National Park. The emerging seedlings of different species originating from C. cespitosa tussocks of different size (large and small) were observed under greenhouse conditions for four years. The size of a non-soil seed bank was evaluated based on the number of seedlings. Significant differences in the seedling number were found between large and small sedge tussocks (Mann-Whitney test Z = 3.96, P < 0.001). However, the number of recorded species was independent of tussock size. Both types of tussocks were dominated by meadow, forest and swamp species (in decreasing order). Some of these species are no longer present in the studi...

We tested whether an annual plant growing in unpredictable, temporary environments can simultaneously allocate its resources into vegetative growth and seed production. Sixty plants of Elatine alsinastrum were analysed for 24 traits associated with growth and sexual reproduction. The specimens originated from three depth fractions of temporary mid-field pools situated in western Poland. We found different patterns of plant growth and matching rates of sexual reproduction that corresponded to different water depths, i.e., shallow, intermediate, and deep. All the plants produced ramets and seeds, but the plants from the intermediate level had the highest number of both daughter ramets and seeds of the highest mass compared to the plants from the shallow- and deep-water conditions. Our results show that in E. alsinastrum both clonal vegetative growth and a high seed production occur. Such behaviour of plants in highly disturbed habitats diverges from the annual and clonal plant life strategies described thus far. The case of E. alsinastrum challenges a general ecological concept assuming that clonality involves only perennial plants.

Agropyron repens (synonym Elymus repens, couch grass) is a species native to Europe and Asia. In Poland, it is a common weed of crop fields. In May 2008, we noticed for the first time symptoms of choke disease (caused by Epichloë spp.) on A. repens at two localities in central Poland. The localities, Pakość (52°47.531′N, 18°06.118′E) and Dulsk (52°45.329′N, 18°20.518′E), are located 16 km apart from each other. The following year, we confirmed the occurrence of choke disease on couch grass at these localities. Stromata were formed on reproductive stems that did not produce inflorescences. They ranged from 16 to 31 mm long and were covered with perithecia 520 to 560 × 160 to 250 μm at a density of 35 to 45 per mm2. Asci measured 270 to 310 × 5.2 to 6.5 μm and ascospores were 225 to 275 × 1.5 to 1.7 μm (specimen deposited in ZT). Morphological characters match with the original description of Epichloë bromicola (4). One strain was isolated from stromatal tissue and the partial DNA sequence of tubB including introns 1 to 3 was obtained as previously described (2). In a phylogenetic analysis, the isolate (GenBank Accession No. GU325782) grouped with Epichloë isolates from other Agropyron spp. from Poland (A. intermedium) and Japan (A. ciliare and A. tsukushiense) and with an isolate from a Roegneria sp. (from China). Experimental mating tests involving isolates from A. intermedium and a Roegneria sp. indicated that these isolates were sexually compatible with Epichloë bromicola from Bromus erectus. Similarly, E. yangsii was compatible with E. bromicola. This suggests that Epichloë isolates from Agropyron, Roegneria, and Bromus hosts form a common mating population, and implies that under a biological species concept the phylogenetic definition of E. bromicola has to be broadened. Epichloë on A. repens has been previously found in Poland (1), Germany (3), Hungary, and Romania (specimen deposited in herbarium of ETH Zurich, ZT) based on incidental records or on herbarium specimens that have been listed under E. typhina. Our study, based on morphology, tubB sequence similarity, and mating compatibility, suggests that the fungus infecting A. repens in Poland is E. bromicola. References: (1) I. Adamska. Acta Mycol. 36:31, 2001. (2) D. Brem and A. Leuchtmann. Evolution 57:37, 2003. (3) J. Kohlmeyer and E. Kohlmeyer. Mycologia 66:77, 1974. (4) A. Leuchtmann and C. L. Schardl. Mycol. Res. 102:1169, 1998.

Stromata of grass-infecting fungi from the genus Epichloë (Clavicipitaceae: Ascomycota) serve as a food source and egg-laying surface for flies of genus Botanophila (Diptera: Anthomyiidae). Larger stromata should make it possible for flies to lay more eggs and provide more food to offspring. This hypothesis was tested in four different grass—fungus associations that occur in central Poland. In two of these associations, Epichloë bromicola on Elymus repens and Epichloë typhina on Puccinellia distans, flies showed a preference for longer stromata, and egg density on these stromata was significantly higher than in the other two associations.Anegative correlation between egg density and offspring success was observed in only one association, E. bromicola-El. repens. However, offspring success in this association did not differ significantly from offspring success in associations with lower egg density on the stromata, in which flies showed no preference for the stroma length. Long-term observations (2000–2010) of fly—fungus interaction in the E. typhina—P. distans association showed that fly preference toward stroma length may vary over time but with no clear tendency. No significant correlations were found between the larval density on a stroma and either larval weight or mortality. The results of the current study question our assumptions that egg laying depends on the stroma length and the fate of eggs laid (i.e., their hatching success and the condition, in terms of weight and survival, of the larvae) on egg density. It is possible that flies choose stromata based on attributes other than size.

Fungus Epichloe typhina (Clavicipitaceae, Ascomycota) has been previously reported to bring to its host grasses protection against other fungi that are pathogenic. However, very little is known about the influence of Epichloe endophyte presence in seeds on other seed-borne fungi. The incidence and diversity of fungi in Puccinellia distans seeds infected E(+) and uninfected E(−) with the E. typhina endophyte was investigated. Seventeen fungal taxa associated with P. distans seeds were identified. There was a significant difference between the number of seeds colonized by other fungi in the E(+) and E(−) seed groups, suggesting that the presence of the Epichloe endophyte may influence the occurrence of other fungi. The species frequently occurring in E(−) seeds included Aspergillus flavus, Chaetomium nigricolor and Rhizopus nigricans. These species were only sporadically observed in E(+) seeds. Only three species were present in both E(+) and E(−) seeds: Alternaria alternata, C. nigricolor and Cladosporium cladosporioides. The fungi identified in this study are widespread and ecologically diverse. Most of the identified taxa have previously been reported to be associated with either grass seeds or seeds of different plant species. Nonetheless, this study is the first to consider the status of the endophyte presence in the analyzed seeds.

Endophytes play an important role in ecological and evolutionary processes in plants and have marked economic value. Seed-transmitted fungal endophytes are conventionally regarded as mutualistic symbionts, but their fitness consequences for the offspring of the host are not clear. Puccinellia distans infected with the fungus Epichloetyphina (E+) produces seeds that are several times smaller than normal (E)). This observation suggests that the E+ seedlings face a developmental disad- vantage. Our growth chamber experiments compared the germination rates of the small E+ and large E) seeds of P. distans and examined the biomass allocation of seedlings to roots and shoots. The E+ seedlings germinated more slowly and main- tained shorter shoots and a smaller root biomass for 30-50 days after sowing. Despite this disadvantage, the E+ plants more quickly increased their total size, attaining a larger shoot and whole-plant biomass. The shoot:root biomass ratio increased more rapidly through time in the E+ seedlings, attaining a value nine times higher in the E+ than the E) group 50 days after sowing. Such differences between the E+ and E) seedlings were not explained by the growth allometry between shoots and roots. The seedlings of P. distans infected with the Epichloe¨ endophyte were initially handicapped by their postponed emergence, but this disad- vantage was quickly overcome by their superior growth capacity. The decrease in the relative allocation to roots may indicate that endophytes increase the perfor- mance of roots as resource-acquiring organs and ⁄or reduce the role of roots in pro- tection against herbivores.

We tested a hypothesis based on life history theory that examines reproductive costs incurred by individuals in consecutive years of their life. A multi-year dataset of resource allocation to vegetative and reproductive structures was analysed in Carex secalina — a perennial, monoecious sedge, reproducing only sexually. In a four-year garden experiment, we assessed above-ground biomass at the end of each season and reproductive allocation expressed as the total length of male and female spikes. The study was aimed at determining how size and age of a plant relates to its reproduction, and how the rate of reproduction affects the year-toyear biomass change in Carex secalina. We observed that after each reproductive episode, individuals had significantly smaller sizes and produced a lower number of generative tillers. The total production of reproductive structures decreased significantly with age in all populations. Moreover, the decrease in plant biomass was greater when more reproductive structures were produced in a previous year, which indicates that the plants incur costs of reproduction in terms of above-ground biomass production.

Cirsium rivulare is a perennial plant that forms patches consisting of ramets resulting from sexual reproduction by seeds and asexual propagation by rhizome fragmentation. We examined the relationship between the size of patches and genetic differentiation of ramets within and between patches. Ramet genotypes were identified using microsatellites. From among 216 ramets examined in the studied population, 123 had a unique genotype, while 93 were clonal, i.e., their genotype was present in at least two ramets. The frequency of ramets with clonal genotypes was 43% and the frequency of unique genotypes was 57%. Ramets with identical genotypes were dominant in small patches. Large patches consisted of ramets with both unique and clonal genotypes, usually with the predominance of the latter. A molecular variance analysis showed the highest level of variance between ramets and the lowest between patches. Additionally, 21.02% of the total variance was recorded between ramets and within patches. The size of patches was correlated with the number of clonal ramets and the number of unique ramets, but it was not correlated with the clonality index. This population of C. rivulare is currently in a phase of decline from 30 years of vegetation transformation, and there appears to have been an increase in sexual propagation based growth over clonal propagation based growth. Hence, a predominance of ramets with unique genotypes was observed. This can happen as a result of disintegration of large patches and formation of gaps between them. These gaps become convenient places for seed germination and the subsequent development of seedlings.

Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 104 (4), ISSN:0013-8746, ISSN:1938-2901

The performance of seeds and seedlings in relation to the age of the mother plant was studied in Carex secalina. Seeds of this sedge can differ substantially in size. We planted 100 C. secalina individuals from three populations in a common garden and followed them for four years. We found that mean seed mass varied with plant age, but the pattern of variation was population-specific, with only one population showing significant reduction in seed mass with age. Similarly, germination frequency changed with age differently in different populations. The relationship between the age of the mother plant and the height of emerged seedlings did not differ between populations. In spite of the fact that plant size and mean seed mass exhibited similar patterns of variation within populations, there was no correlation between these two variables at the level of individuals. This means that the size of C. secalina tufts does not determine how big the seeds will be. Moreover, there was no relationship between mean seed mass and the height of seedlings. Presumably, factors intrinsic to each plant determine the production of either small or large seeds in a population-specific way.

Grass-infecting Epichloe fungi depend on flies of the genus Botanophila (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) for the transfer of spermatia (gametes) and fertilization. Flies lay eggs on fungal structures and their larvae use this as a source of food, hence, this interaction is generally considered to be obligatory and mutualistic. In the present study, we monitored the occurrence of Botanophila flies in a population of Epichloe-infected wild orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) in central Poland. The number of eggs per stroma ranged from 0 to 14. Overall, 24.83% of all examined stromata had no eggs or brood chambers, whereas the incidence of fertilized stromata ranged from 89.66% to 100% depending on the year. Nearly all stromata that exhibited no signs of fly visitation were fertilized. These results suggest that in the Polish population of D. glomerata, sexual reproduction of Epichloё fungi depends on spermatia-carrying vectors other than Botanophila.

Seed germination in sedges: a short review Five patterns of seed germination in the sedges of the genus Carex are presented, based on the literature data and the results of the authors' own research. They include the pattern of C. acutiformis, C. arenaria, C. remota, C. flava and C. communis. These patterns were constructed on the basis of seed specific requirements for development, such as stratification, temperature, dormancy and time of germination. Majority of sedges follow the pattern of C. acutiformis or C. remota. In both cases, stratification and either high or low temperature are essential for seed germination. Seeds that start to germinate early (C. remota pattern) are characterized by the absence of the distinct peaks of germination, as opposed to the C. acutiformis pattern with the germination peak in March. Our long-term investigations, conducted on the group of individuals in controlled conditions, revealed significant differences in seed size and the ability of seeds to germinate depending on the age of mother plants. We postulate that mother plant age is a new factor that should be considered in the construction of seed germination patterns.

Man-made habitats - hotspots of evolutionary game between grass, fungus and fly The origin and effects of an evolutionary game between species from three different kingdoms (plants, fungi and animals) are presented. We provide scientific evidence that the interaction discovered in man-made habitats leads to an early stage of coevolution. The grass Puccinellia distans was observed to rapidly spread in new man-made habitats, while at the same time, it was colonised by the fungus Epichloë typhina. The invasion of infected grasses is accompanied by alterations in life histories of both species: P. distans developed features promoting long-distance spreading, whereas E. typhina changed its life cycle by forming sexual structures for the second time, later in the vegetative season. This enables the fungus to make use of the late shoots of the grass for sexual reproduction, even though it cannot be completed because the vector of spermatia necessary for fertilisation, female Botanophila flies, is not present at that time. This indicates that such uncoordinated evolutionary processes had taken place before interactions between organisms became so specialised that it is difficult to presume they were the result of natural selection. Moreover, these processes could have been initiated in man-made habitats that, in particular circumstances, can become coevolutionary hotspots.

Asexual fungal endophytes, which do not produce reproductive structures, spread in host popu- lations only vertically via the propagules of their hosts. With such a close relationship between the fitness of the asexual endophyte and that of the host, the relationship is traditionally thought to be mutualistic. Here we present data showing that the positive effect of asexual endophytes may concern only a short period of the host's life and that its lifetime reproductive success may be reduced. We followed 180 individuals of a perennial grass, Puccinellia distans, for the first 3 years of their growth both in the field and in a common garden experiment. In the first 2 years, infected individuals produced more generative shoots with longer inflores- cences. Three-year-old individuals produced signifi- cantly fewer generative shoots with shorter inflorescences when infected with the fungus Epichloe ¨ typhina. Moreover, the dry mass of above- and below- ground parts after three seasons was significantly lower in infected individuals. We suggest that if the endophyte retains control over plant reproduction and if shorter generation time is more crucial for the fungus than for the perennial host, then the fungus should stimulate plant reproduction early in life even though infection incurs a future cost. This reasoning suggests that dis- covering an endophyte's beneficial effect on its peren- nial host in one season provides insufficient grounds for concluding that a mutualistic relationship exists.

Main conclusion According to the results presented in this paper the fungal endophyteEpichloë typhinasignificantly improves the growth, PSII photochemistry and C assimilation efficiency of its hostDactylis glomerata. In this paper, we present a comprehensive study of the impact of the endophytic fungi Epichloë typhina on its plant hosts’ photosynthesis apparatus. Chlorophyll a fluorescence, gas exchange, immuno-blotting and spectrophotometric measurements were employed to assess photosynthetic performance, changes in pigment content and mechanisms associated with light harvesting, carbon assimilation and energy distribution in Dactylis glomerata colonized with Epichloë typhina. According to the results presented in this study, colonization of D. glomerata results in improved photosynthesis efficiency. Additionally, we propose a new mechanism allowing plants to cope with the withdrawal of a significant fraction of its energy resources by the endophytic fungi. The abundance of LHCI, LHCII proteins as well as chlorophyll b was significantly higher in E+ plants. Malate export out of the chloroplast was shown to be increased in colonized plants. To our knowledge, we are the first to report this phenomenon. Epichloë colonization improved PSII photochemistry and C assimilation efficiency. Elevated energy demands of E+ D. glomerata plants are met by increasing the rate of carbon assimilation and PSII photochemistry. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00425-015-2337-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Polish historical and present populations of Carex repens (= C. posnaniensis ) were compared with southern European populations of this plant on the basis of their nuclear ITS and chloroplast IGS DNA sequences. It follows from the analysis of the available data that (1) there are no differences in ITS1 and ITS2 sequences between the present populations occurring nearby the Jajtawy population (Poland), where in 1896 Spribille described C. posnaniensis , (2) the taxonomic distance between all the populations is relatively small (the greatest was reported between the populations from Poland and Italy), (3) the similarity between the populations decreases with an increasing geographical distance between them. Two populations from Italy exhibit the highest taxonomic distance from the Polish ones. We attribute this finding to the difference in age between these populations, as the Polish populations are much younger relative to the Italian ones and they could have appeared only after the Baltic glaciation ice sheet had receded.

The interactions of endophytes with plants are believed to evolve over time from parasitic to mutualistic, and in the seed-transmitted fungal endophytes, these interactions are conventionally treated as mutualistic. The weeping alkaligrass Puccinellia distans has recently dispersed to new habitats in Europe, where it was colonised by the seed-transmitted fungus Epichloe typhina. The E. typhina-infected weeping alkaligrass has a fertility advantage over -uninfected plants, but this advantage is held only over shorter time scales. We assess the antiherbivore value of E. typhina in mature weeping alkaligrass against common voles Microtus arvalis, a herbivore naturally co-occurring with weeping alkaligrass. In two consecutive food-choice tests conducted in a lab, we examined feeding by naive voles on E. typhina-infected (E+) and -uninfected grass (E−) originating from Central Europe. In the first test, all voles consumed comparable amounts of E+ biomass and E− biomass. In the subsequent test, the voles reduced their feeding rates by 57 %, but E+ food was avoided twice as frequently as E− food (75 vs. 33 % reduction). This result suggests that toxins produced by E. typhina repel herbivores soon after the first contact. We show that in addition to its direct fitness consequences, endophyte-mediated resistance to herbivory increases the fertility advantage of E. typhina-infected weeping alkaligrass. This effect can increase the ability of weeping alkaligrass to invade habitats with intense herbivory.

Phytophagous mites and endophytic fungi may interact when sharing a host plant, potentially influencing one another’s growth or population dynamics; however, interactions between them are poorly known and remain largely unexplored. In this study, quantitative associations between three species of phytophagous mites and the endophytic fungus Epichloe bromicola Leuchtm. & Schardl (Clavicipitaceae, Ascomycotina) on quackgrass, Elymus repens (L.) Gould are reported. The mites’ abundance was assessed on field-collected grass shoots that were either exhibiting choke disease symptoms or without the fungus. Overall, the abundance of Tetranychus urticae and Aculodes mckenziei was significantly lower on quackgrass plants infected by E. bromicola compared to plants without the fungus. Conversely, populations of Abacarus hystrix were significantly larger on plants colonised by the fungus than on uninfected plants. Thus, the presence of this endophytic fungus may have divergent effects on different phytophagous mite species although the basis of these effects is not yet known.

Two closely related species of the genus Barbilophozia: B. lycopodioides and B. hatcheri were studied in populations from the Tatra Range (S Poland), where they are frequent and widely distributed. Both species play an important role in plant communities and grow here very often side by side. Typically developed plants are quite easy to distinguish (even in the field), however morphologically intermediate forms, difficult to recognize by using of classical taxonomic methods, sometimes are found. We found enzymatic markers, that allow to recognize the critical forms. Both studied species are different in enzymatic patterns of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) and peroxidases (PX). In GOT four different phenotypes were detected. The first two (GOT 1 and GOT 2) were characteristic for B. hatcheri and next two (GOT 3 and GOT 4) for B. lycopodioides. Peroxidase patterns, that were monomorphic and specific for each species, exhibit different mobility in anodal and cathodal parts of gel. Results of the studies allowed us to draw the conclusion, that PX and GOT are good isoenzymatic markers and they can have practical application for identification of Barbilophozia species.