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Memoria final del Proyecto de innovación docente titulado "Conversión del Trabajo de Fin de Asignatura (TFA) en aportación de calidad al conocimiento social (V)" en el que se desarrollan metodologías activas de trabajo tutorizado de estudiantes para su transformación en artículos o mejoras de artículos de la Enciclopedia Virtual Wikipedia.

The genetic profile of the Varroa destructor mite infesting Apis mellifera iberiensis colonies located in the Iberian Peninsula and also on Canarian and Balearic islands was determined through standard molecular assays (RFLP of the mitochondrial cox1 fragment). The V. destructor Korea haplotype was found in all of the 575 samples analyzed except in one, confirming the worldwide expansion of the more virulent haplotype. The mitochondrial haplotypes of the honey bees from an apiary where the Japan haplotype was detected were also determined, but no significant relationship was observed in the parasite-host haplotype distribution., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN), Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, Fac. de Veterinaria, TRUE, pub

This article presents managed honey bee colony loss rates over winter 2019/20 resulting from using the standardised COLOSS questionnaire in 37 countries. Six countries were from outside Europe, including, for the first time in this series of articles, New Zealand. The 30,491 beekeepers outside New Zealand reported 4.5% of colonies with unsolvable queen problems, 11.1% of colonies dead after winter and 2.6% lost through natural disaster. This gave an overall colony winter loss rate of 18.1%, higher than in the previous year. The winter loss rates varied greatly between countries, from 7.4% to 36.5%. 3216 beekeepers from New Zealand managing 297,345 colonies reported 10.5% losses for their 2019 winter (six months earlier than for other, Northern Hemisphere, countries). We modelled the risk of loss as a dead/empty colony or from unresolvable queen problems, for all countries except New Zealand. Overall, larger beekeeping operations with more than 50 colonies experienced significantly lower losses (p < 0.001). Migration was also highly significant (p < 0.001), with lower loss rates for operations migrating their colonies in the previous season. A higher proportion of new queens reduced the risk of colony winter loss (p < 0.001), suggesting that more queen replacement is better. All three factors, operation size, migration and proportion of young queens, were also included in a multivariable main effects quasi-binomial GLM and all three remained highly significant (p < 0.001). Detailed results for each country and overall are given in a table, and a map shows relative risks of winter loss at the regional level.

Las abejas melíferas son fundamentales para el mantenimiento de la biodiversidad en ecosistemas agrarios y naturales por su papel polinizador de cultivos y plantas silvestres, además de su interés por la elaboración de alimentos y otros productos de consumo humano. Estos insectos sociales son susceptibles de sufrir la infección de muchos patógenos que ponen en peligro la viabilidad de las colonias. Entre ellos, el microsporidio Nosema ceranae, agente causante de la nosemosis tipo C, es uno de los más prevalentes a nivel mundial. Sin embargo, a pesar de su amplia distribución y de las importantes repercusiones patológicas que tiene sobre las colonias de abejas, todavía se desconocen importantes aspectos de su epidemiología y, sobre todo, de su posible interacción con otros factores bióticos. Por este motivo, en la presente Tesis Doctoral se ha estudiado el papel de diversos factores involucrados en la infección utilizando colonias infectadas por N. ceranae de manera natural, con el fin de comparar el desarrollo de la infección a diferentes niveles (apiario, colonia y abejas individuales). Para ello, se ha realizado un estudio comparativo de la infección en seis colmenares distribuidos en cuatro países mediterráneos para analizar cómo varía la infección a lo largo del tiempo durante un período de veinte meses. Se comprobó que las condiciones de cada apiario y el manejo apícola influyen en el desarrollo de la infección afectando de forma significativa tanto el porcentaje de parasitación dentro de la colonia como la mortalidad de las colmenas. También se estudió el papel de las condiciones climáticas y, pese a que se intuye cierta influencia, no se ha podido establecer ninguna relación entre éstas y la parasitación del microsporidio dentro de la colonia. También cabe destacar que la mortalidad de las colonias registradas a lo largo del tiempo en los colmenares parece obedecer a un conjunto de factores y no solamente a la parasitación por N. ceranae..., Honey bees are essential to maintain biodiversity in agricultural and natural ecosystems due to their role as pollinators of crops and wild plants, in addition to their interest in the production of food and other products for human consumption. These social insects are susceptible to infection by many pathogens that threaten the viability of colonies. Among them, the microsporidium Nosema ceranae, the causative agent of nosemosis type C, is one of the most prevalent worldwide. However, despite its wide distribution and the important pathological impact it has on honey bee colonies, important aspects of its epidemiology and especially its possible interaction with other biotic factors are still unknown.For this reason, in this PhD Thesis the role of several factors involved in the infection have been studied using colonies naturally infected by N. ceranae, in order to compare the development of infection at different levels (apiary, colony and individual honey bees).In order to do this, a comparative study of the infection was carried out in six apiaries distributed in four Mediterranean countries to analyse how the infection varies over time during a period of twenty months. It was found that the conditions of each apiary and the beekeeping management influence the development of the infection, significantly affecting both the percentage of parasitization within the colony and the mortality of the colonies. The role of climatic conditions were also studied and, although some influence is suspected, it has not been possible to establish any relationships between these and the levels of the microsporidium within the colony. It is also noteworthy that the mortality of the colonies recorded over time in the apiaries seems to be due to a combination of factors and not only by N. ceranae infection...

El objetivo de esta tesis doctoral es investigar sobre «La identificación del muerto con Osiris durante el Egipto ptolemaico». El dios Osiris era uno de los más importantes del Antiguo Egipto y su popularidad se diseminó en el Mediterráneo debido a su mujer y hermana Isis. Además, los rituales funerarios en Egipto estaban ligados al mito osiriano, específicamente al proceso de embalsamamiento. La momificación era un ritual que se realizaba para conservar el cuerpo y, desde el Reino Medio, cumplía el propósito de identificar al difunto con Osiris a través de esta ceremonia. En algunos casos, pero no de forma tan habitual como se pensó en un primer momento en el ámbito de la egiptología, las mujeres se identificaban con la diosa de la fertilidad Hathor. La momificación continúa siendo el ritual funerario principal en el Egipto ptolemaico. Ser enterrado de cierta manera implica aceptar esta forma para la eternidad, lo cual se relaciona directamente con las creencias funerarias y con la identidad mortuoria. Esta última no se limita a un único aspecto, hay multitud de identidades en nosotros, pero la identidad funeraria solo es elegida una vez y dura para siempre. Debido a la multiplicidad de identidades, no es extraño que las personas que se identificaban como griegos en algunos aspectos de su vida diaria en el Egipto ptolemaico pudiesen elegir el ritual funerario egipcio para ser enterrados. Al contrario de lo que se solía pensar, los griegos y los egipcios no fueron dos grupos separados durante este periodo de la historia..., The aim of this dissertation is to investigate about «The identification of the dead with Osiris during the Ptolemaic Egypt». The god Osiris was one of the most important gods in Ancient Egypt, and its popularity widespread through the Mediterranean due to his wife and sister, Isis. Also, funerary rituals in Egypt were linked to the Osirian myth, specifically the embalming process. Mummification was an Egyptian ritual performed to preserve the body and, from the Middle Kingdom onwards, served the purpose of identifying the dead with Osiris through this ceremony. In some cases, but not as usual as Egyptology thought in the first place, women identified with the fertility goddess Hathor.Mummification in Ptolemaic Egypt continues to be the main funerary ritual. To be buried in a certain way is to accept this condition for eternity, that is directly related to funerary beliefs and mortuary identity. The latter is not restricted to a single aspect, there are a multitude of identities in us, but the funerary identity is only chosen once and lasts forever.Due to the multiplicity of cultural identities, it is not strange that people who identified as Greek in some aspects of their daily life in Ptolemaic Egypt would choose an Egyptian funerary ritual to be buried. As opposed to what we used to think, Greeks and Egyptians were not two separate social groups during this period of history...

In the Mediterranean basin, the tick species Hyalomma lusitanicum Koch stands out among other species of the Hyalomma genus due to its wide distribution, and there is great concern about its potential role as a vector and/or reservoir and its continuous expansion to new areas because of climate warming and human and other animal movements. This review aims to consolidate all the information on H. lusitanicum, including taxonomy and evolution, morphological and molecular identification, life cycle, sampling methods, rearing under laboratory conditions, ecology, hosts, geographical distribution, seasonality, vector role and control methods. The availability of adequate data is extremely relevant to the development of appropriate control strategies in areas where this tick is currently distributed as well as in new areas where it could become established in the near future.

(1) Background: Q fever is a worldwide zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii that have cases reported in humans and animals almost everywhere. The aim of this study was to describe the seasonality of Coxiella burnetii in the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and the tick Hyalomma lusitanicum in a meso-Mediterranean ecosystem. (2) Methods: two populations of wild rabbits that differ in whether or not they share habitat with ungulates, mainly red deer (Cervus elaphus) were sampled for a year to collect ticks, blood and vaginal or anal swabs. Presence of C. burnetii DNA in swabs and the tick H. lusitanicum was determined by PCR and serum antibodies by ELISA. (3) Results: C. burnetii DNA was detected in 47.2% of 583 rabbits, in 65.5% of sera, and in more than half of the H. lusitanicum. There were small variations according to sex and age of the rabbits but significant according to the habitat (4) Conclusions: The results indicate that C. burnetii circulates freely between wild rabbits and H. lusitanicum and the sylvatic cycle in meso-Mediterranean environments relies in the presence of wild rabbits and H. lusitanicum above all if sharing habitat with red deer.

In this case report, we analyze the possible causes of the poor health status of a professional Apis mellifera iberiensis apiary located in Gajanejos (Guadalajara, Spain). Several factors that potentially favor colony collapse were identified, including Nosema ceranae infection, alone or in combination with other factors (e.g., BQCV and DWV infection), and the accumulation of acaricides commonly used to control Varroa destructor in the beebread (coumaphos and tau-fluvalinate). Based on the levels of residues, the average toxic unit estimated for the apiary suggests a possible increase in vulnerability to infection by N. ceranae due to the presence of high levels of acaricides and the unusual climatic conditions of the year of the collapse event. These data highlight the importance of evaluating these factors in future monitoring programs, as well as the need to adopt adequate preventive measures as part of national and international welfare programs aimed at guaranteeing the health and fitness of bees.

Coxiella burnetii (Derrick) Philip, the causative agent of Q fever, is mainly transmitted by aerosols, but ticks can also be a source of infection. Transstadial and transovarial transmission of C. burnetii by Hyalomma lusitanicum (Koch) has been suggested. There is a close relationship between this tick species, wild animals and C. burnetii but the transmission in a natural environment has not been demonstrated. In this study, we collected 80 engorged nymphs of H. lusitanicum from red deer and wild rabbits. They moult to adults under laboratory conditions and we feed them artificially through silicone membranes after a preconditioning period. C. burnetii DNA was tested in ticks, blood and faeces samples using real-time PCR. The pathogen was found in 36.2% of fed adults, demonstrating that transstadial transmission from nymph to adult occurs in nature. The presence of DNA in the 60.0% of blood samples after artificial feeding confirms that adults transmit the bacteria during feeding. Further studies are needed about co-feeding and other possible transmission routes to define the role of this tick species in the cycle of C. burnetii.

The influence of genetic diversity and exposure to xenobiotics on the prevalence of pathogens was studied within the context of a voluntary epidemiological study in Spanish apiaries of Apis mellifera iberiensis, carried out during the spring season of years 2014 and 2015. As such, the evolutionary lineages of the honey bee colonies were identified, a multiresidue analysis of xenobiotics was carried out in beebread and worker bee samples, and the Toxic Unit (TUm) was estimated for each sampled apiary. The relationship between lineages and the most prevalent pathogens (Nosema ceranae, Varroa destructor, trypanosomatids, Black Queen Cell Virus; and Deformed Wing Virus) was analysed with contingency tables, and the possible relationships between TUm and the prevalence of these pathogens were studied by using a factor analysis. The statistical analysis supported the associations between V. destructor and Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), and between N. ceranae and Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), but the association between these pathogens and trypanosomatids was not observed. TUm values varied between 5.5 × 10-6 and 3.65 × 10-1. When TUm < 3.35 × 10-4, it was mainly determined by coumaphos, tau-fluvalinate and/or chlorfenvinphos. At higher values, other insecticides also contributed to TUm, although a clear predominance was not seen up to TUm ≥ 1.83 × 10-2, when it was mainly defined by acrinathrin, spinosad and/or imidacloprid. The possible cumulative effect from the joint action of xenobiotics was >10% in the 63% of the cases. The prevalence of pathogens did not appear to be influenced by the distribution of evolutionary lineages and, while the prevalence of V. destructor was not found to be determined by TUm, there was a trend towards an increasing prevalence of N. ceranae when TUm ≥ 23 10-4. This study is an example of using TUm approach beyond the field of the ecotoxicology.

Q fever is a worldwide zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii (Derrick) Philip. It is a major cause of abortion among sheep and may be responsible for reproductive losses in red deer in Spain. Airborne transmission is the most widespread; however, some studies suggested that ticks may play a role, but little is known about their actual involvement in the C. burnetii cycle. The aim of this study was to determine the role that Hyalomma lusitanicum (Koch) tick plays in the maintenance of this agent among wildlife in the meso-Mediterranean areas. We processed by PCR 53 swabs from wild rabbits, 21 liver samples from red deer, and 236 ticks collected at different stages. Coxiella burnetii DNA was detected in 43.40% of wild rabbits and 38.09% of red deer, supporting the hypothesis that these animals are quite likely to serve as a reservoir in the field. We also found a high prevalence of C. burnetii in ticks (55.66%). It is worth noting that 50.45% of positive ticks were collected from negative hosts, suggesting that the pathogen probably was acquired at a previous tick stage. Our results suggest transstadial transmission, and the presence of bacterial DNA in the offspring of positive female ticks is the first evidence of the transovarial transmission of C. burnetii by H. lusitanicum. Thus, this tick species seems to play an important role as a bridge of infection in the wildlife cycle, although further studies are needed to confirm vector competence.

Nosema ceranae is a highly prevalent pathogen of Apis mellifera, which is distributed worldwide. However, there may still exist isolated areas that remain free of N. ceranae. Herein, we used molecular tools to survey the Azores to detect N. ceranae and unravel its colonisation patterns. To that end, we sampled 474 colonies from eight islands in 2014/2015 and 91 from four islands in 2020. The findings revealed that N. ceranae was not only present but also the dominant species in the Azores. In 2014/2015, N. apis was rare and N. ceranae prevalence varied between 2.7% in São Jorge and 50.7% in Pico. In 2020, N. ceranae prevalence increased significantly (p < 0.001) in Terceira and São Jorge also showing higher infection levels. The spatiotemporal patterns suggest that N. ceranae colonised the archipelago recently, and it rapidly spread across other islands, where at least two independent introductions might have occurred. Flores and Santa Maria have escaped the N. ceranae invasion, and it is remarkable that Santa Maria is also free of Varroa destructor, which makes it one of the last places in Europe where the honey bee remains naive to these two major biotic stressors., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Depto. de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Fac. de Ciencias Biológicas, TRUE, pub

Nosema ceranae is a highly prevalent intracellular parasite of honey bees’ midgut worldwide. This Microsporidium was monitored during a long-term study to evaluate the infection at apiary and intra-colony levels in six apiaries in four Mediterranean countries (France, Israel, Portugal, and Spain). Parameters on colony strength, honey production, beekeeping management, and climate were also recorded. Except for São Miguel (Azores, Portugal), all apiaries were positive for N. ceranae, with the lowest prevalence in mainland France and the highest intra-colony infection in Israel. A negative correlation between intra-colony infection and colony strength was observed in Spain and mainland Portugal. In these two apiaries, the queen replacement also influenced the infection levels. The highest colony losses occurred in mainland France and Spain, although they did not correlate with the Nosema infection levels, as parasitism was low in France and high in Spain. These results suggest that both the effects and the level of N. ceranae infection depends on location and beekeeping conditions. Further studies on host-parasite coevolution, and perhaps the interactions with other pathogens and the role of honey bee genetics, could assist in understanding the difference between nosemosis disease and infection, to develop appropriate strategies for its control., ARIMNet2 2016 Call, Ministerio de Asuntos Económicos y Transformación Digital, FCT, Depto. de Sanidad Animal, Fac. de Veterinaria, TRUE, pub

Beekeepers have various options to control the parasitic mite Varroa destructor in honey bee colonies, but no empirical data are available on the methods they apply in practice. We surveyed 28,409 beekeepers maintaining 507,641 colonies in 30 European countries concerning Varroa control methods. The set of 19 different Varroa diagnosis and control measures was taken from the annual COLOSS questionnaire on honey bee colony losses. The most frequent activities were monitoring of Varroa infestations, drone brood removal, various oxalic acid applications and formic acid applications. Correspondence analysis and hierarchical clustering on principal components showed that six Varroa control options (not necessarily the most used ones) significantly contribute to defining three distinctive clusters of countries in terms of Varroa control in Europe. Cluster I (eight Western European countries) is characterized by use of amitraz strips. Cluster II comprises 15 countries from Scandinavia, the Baltics, and Central-Southern Europe. This cluster is characterized by long-term formic acid treatments. Cluster III is characterized by dominant usage of amitraz fumigation and formed by seven Eastern European countries. The median number of different treatments applied per beekeeper was lowest in cluster III. Based on estimation of colony numbers in included countries, we extrapolated the proportions of colonies treated with different methods in Europe. This suggests that circa 62% of colonies in Europe are treated with amitraz, followed by oxalic acid for the next largest percentage of colonies. We discuss possible factors determining the choice of Varroa control measures in the different clusters.