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Research Areas: Anthropology ; Environmental Sciences & Ecology ; Sociology ; Veterinary Sciences Owning reptiles (e.g., chelonians, lizards, and snakes) poses a great deal of challenges in terms of welfare and care, as well as conservation and environmental concerns. However, despite the large scale of the reptile trade, little is known about the motives for acquiring and keeping these animals. This research provides the first empirical investigation on the motives for owning reptiles as pets in Portugal as well as on the nature of the human–reptile bond. Using a mixed-methods approach, an online survey was used to gather the views and opinions of 220 reptile owners. Respondents described their affection toward reptiles using terms that denote affective states of increasing intensity: “to like”, “to love,” “fascination,” and “passion.” Four main categories of motivations for the long-term keeping of pet reptiles were identified: convenience, entertainment, companionship, and duty of care. Respondents perceived their pets as family members (64%) and as sentient beings, including the ability to feel “stress or fear” (≥ 80%) and “pain or discomfort” (≥74%). Snakes differed from lizards and chelonians in the sense that they were less frequently considered a “family member” (χ2(2) = 7.14, p = 0.03) and were perceived as less able to communicate (χ2(2) = 9.91, p

Simple Summary Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to meet the needs of their pet animals. In this study, 220 pet reptile owners in Portugal reported their knowledge of reptile behaviors and the provision of essential husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge). Although two-thirds of respondents scored very good to excellent in terms of interpreting their pet reptile’s behaviors, 85% failed to provide at least one of the four husbandry needs. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by some respondents. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their lives. Despite this, none of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and a single respondent reported it as poor. We suggest that poor welfare and abnormal behaviors in pet reptiles have become accepted as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted. In particular, the predominant view, propelled by the exotic pet industry, that reptiles are low-maintenance pets needs to be actively refuted. Abstract The ability to meet the needs of each species in captivity is at the heart of the ethical debate on the acceptability of keeping reptiles and other animals as pets. Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to understand their pets’ behavior and to meet their welfare requirements. In this study, we surveyed pet reptile owners in Portugal (N = 220) to assess their behavioral knowledge and the provision of essential husbandry needs. Although two-thirds of respondents (68%) scored very good to excellent in terms of knowledge of their pet reptile’s behaviors, only 15% of respondents met four essential reptile husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge) and 43% met two or less. None of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and only a single respondent reported it as poor. Logistic regression model showed that while snake owners had fourteen times higher odds of reporting adequate husbandry provision, lizard owners had the highest odds of reporting good or very good welfare despite providing less of their animals’ basic husbandry needs. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their captive lives. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by up to one quarter of respondents. We suggest that the frequency of these behaviors in pet reptiles has led to their acceptance as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted.

The professionalization of veterinary medicine in Britain has been little studied by social scientists, although as a classic instance of an occupation that has achieved exclusionary social closure it merits examination from a neo-Weberian perspective. Therefore, this paper explores how it has attained this position through state action in an historical and contemporary context using neo-Weberianism as a theoretical lens. In charting the different stages and forms of professional regulation in veterinary medicine, group self-interest is identified as a central driver, following the neo-Weberian idiom. However, contrary to the position adopted by some neo-Weberians, the professionalization process is seen as being more complex than simply being interest-based, with the public interest being upheld. As such, through the case of veterinary medicine, it is claimed professional self-interests and the public interest can be co-terminous and mutually achieve a dynamic equilibrium. They do not have to form part of a zero-sum game.

Part 2 of this narrative review outlines the theoretical and practical bases for assessing the efficacy and effectiveness of conventional medicines and homeopathic products. Known and postulated mechanisms of action are critically reviewed. The evidence for clinical efficacy of products in both categories, in the form of practitioner experience, meta-analysis and systematic reviews of clinical trial results, is discussed. The review also addresses problems and pitfalls in assessing data, and the ethical and negative aspects of pharmacology and homeopathy in veterinary medicine.

For a constructively aligned curriculum in veterinary professionalism, there is a need for well-designed higher order learning outcomes to support students' professional identity formation. A lack of uniformly accepted definitions of veterinary professionalism necessitates the defining and refining of current concepts of professionalism to inform teaching and assessment. A potential method for achieving such learning outcomes is to generate these from simulated professionalism teaching scenarios. A workshop was designed in which veterinary educators used role play to resolve a professional dilemma. Following discussion of the appropriate management approach, participants were asked to reflect on the learning outcomes that were required to resolve the scenario and that students would achieve by going through the same classroom-based process. Workshop participants identified several professionalism learning outcomes that are not currently defined in the literature: realizing that there is not a single correct answer to a professional dilemma, making a decision despite this uncertainty, communicating differences of opinion, and understanding the effect of differences in professional identity. Although the process described runs counter to traditional curricular design, it may offer a valuable contribution to the discourse surrounding professionalism learning outcomes. Furthermore, it has generated higher level learning outcomes than have been obtained through other methods.

Recently, there has been a surge in cognition research using non-avian reptile systems. As a diverse group of animals, non-avian reptiles (turtles, the tuatara, crocodilians, and squamates - lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids) are good model systems for answering questions related to cognitive ecology; from the role of the environment in impacting brain, behaviour and learning, to how social and life-history factors correlate with learning ability. Furthermore, given their variable social structure and degree of sociality, studies on reptiles have demonstrated that group living is not a pre-condition for social learning. Past research has undoubtedly demonstrated that non-avian reptiles are capable of more than just instinctive reactions and basic cognition. Despite their ability to provide answers to fundamental questions in cognitive ecology, and a growing literature base, there have been no systematic syntheses of research in this group. Here, we systematically, and comprehensively review studies on reptile learning. We identify 92 new studies investigating learning in reptiles not included in previous reviews on the same topic – affording a unique opportunity to provide a more in-depth synthesis of existing work, its taxonomic distribution, the types of cognitive domains tested and methodology that has been used. Our review therefore provides a major update on our current state of knowledge and ties the collective evidence together under nine umbrella research areas: (1) habituation, (2) conditioning, (3) aversion learning, (4) spatial learning, (5) learning during foraging, (6) numerical competency, (7) learning flexibility, (8) problem solving, and (9) social learning. Importantly, we identify knowledge gaps and propose themes which offer important future research opportunities including how cognitive ability might influence fitness and survival, testing cognition in ecologically relevant situations, comparing cognition in invasive and non-invasive populations of species, and social learning. To move the field forward, it will be immensely important to build upon the descriptive approach of testing if a species can learn a task with experimental studies elucidating causal reasons for cognitive variation within and between species. With the appropriate methodology, this young but rapidly growing field of research should advance greatly in the coming years providing significant opportunities for addressing general questions in cognitive ecology and beyond.

VetFinals has been developed as a novel online Twitter teaching event designed to support intercollegiate veterinary teaching using social media. Previous studies in other fields have suggested that Twitter use within universities may have benefits for undergraduate education. This “teaching tip” paper describes a project using Twitter to host online exam study sessions. The project has been a highly successful collaborative effort between the Royal Veterinary College and Nottingham Veterinary School in the UK. Over 4 years, the #VetFinals project has developed into a long-term, self-sustaining enterprise. This initiative provides a semi-structured means for student exam preparation with direct real-time input from a faculty member. It also creates a network of peers both horizontally across institutions and vertically throughout year groups. Based on similar initiatives in other disciplines, an anticipated outcome of this project was to contribute to student online professionalism. This could help address the veterinary community's recently highlighted problems with professional conduct and appropriate use of social media. Analysis of the success of this endeavor will be available in a future publication.

Since the early 1980s respiratory problems in racehorses have been identified as a common cause of lost days in training and reduced performance. Recent research adds to this evidence base; however, its direction and focus suggests a lack of global consensus on terminology for some respiratory diseases, such as lower airway disease, as …

Dog fighting became unlawful in the UK in 1835, yet it continues today (as reported by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and Crown Prosecution Service), although with an unknown prevalence. We used an online questionnaire to (1) determine the occurrence of dogs suspected of use in fighting in UK veterinary practices; (2) explore relative reporting of incidents to police, RSPCA or equivalent charity by registered veterinary nurses (RVN) and veterinarians; and (3) determine factors influencing reporting. Emails (n=2493) containing the questionnaire were sent to UK veterinary practices: 423 questionnaires (159 by RVNs, 264 by veterinarians) were completed. One or more cases of dog fighting were suspected by 14.4 per cent of respondents in 2015; 182 cases suspected in total. Proportionately more RVNs suspected dog fighting than veterinarians (P=0.0009). Thirty-two respondents (7.6 per cent, n=422) claimed to have reported suspicions to the police, the RSPCA or equivalent charity previously; 59 respondents (14.2 per cent) had previously chosen not to. Reasons not to report included: uncertainty of illegal activity (81.4 per cent), fear of the client not returning to the practice (35.6 per cent) and concerns regarding client confidentiality (22.0 per cent). Further work is required to address under-reporting of dog fighting by veterinary professionals.

For many years after its invention around 1796, homeopathy was widely used in people and later in animals. Over the intervening period (1796-2016) pharmacology emerged as a science from Materia Medica (medicinal materials) to become the mainstay of veterinary therapeutics. There remains today a much smaller, but significant, use of homeopathy by veterinary surgeons. Homeopathic products are sometimes administered when conventional drug therapies have not succeeded, but are also used as alternatives to scientifically based therapies and licensed products. The principles underlying the veterinary use of drug-based and homeopathic products are polar opposites; this provides the basis for comparison between them. This two-part review compares and contrasts the two treatment forms in respect of history, constituents, methods of preparation, known or postulated mechanisms underlying responses, the legal basis for use and scientific credibility in the 21st century. Part 1 begins with a consideration of why therapeutic products actually work or appear to do so.

This article takes a case-based approach to a scenario in veterinary practice. The actions of the registered veterinary nurse are analysed from a legal and professional perspective, with the aim to generate recommendations to improve future practice.

An online survey, using open and prompted response questions, was undertaken to collate the views of stakeholders on the priority welfare issues currently facing companion dogs (Canis familiaris) in Great Britain and on dogs’ general quality of life. The stakeholder sectors targeted broadly comprised Education, Government, Industry, Charity and Veterinary. Overall, respondents described companion dogs as, at minimum, having a life worth living. Whether welfare issues were openly described or ranked within a set list, those of high priority in the perceptions of stakeholders matched those cited in published scientific literature; particularly, exaggerated physical features, inherited disease, obesity and inappropriate socialisation. Puppy farming and status dogs, which have been highlighted recently in the media, were also viewed as important. Lack of appropriate mental stimulation, irresponsible ownership and inappropriate environment were raised as priority issues by stakeholders and are under-reported in scientific literature. Significant differences between stakeholder sectors in ranking of welfare issues perceived importance, urgency to rectify, impact (on the individual) or prevalence in Britain may be explained by vested interests, organisational roles, differences in terminology and the contexts within which stakeholders came into contact with companion dogs. Pet travel, dew claw removal and complementary and alternative medicines were amongst those issues thought to be of least urgent welfare concern. Issues perceived to enhance welfare included the quality of veterinary care, physical stimulation, educational resources, responsible ownership, the high status of dogs in society and the work of welfare organisations.

Establishing a unique body of knowledge to define veterinary nursing as a profession is a key role of nursing research, but how that research is undertaken in terms of professionalism, ethics, welfare and law will help shape nurses’ professional identity. Consideration and protection of those individuals who are the subjects of research is the fundamental part of research ethics. Although certain regulations and processes seem burdensome they need to be in place to protect the animal, client and the nursing profession as a whole. Research involving recognized acts of veterinary nursing will always prioritize animal welfare but there are many other aspects to consider too. Most importantly to research ethics is open discussion, there is potential room for further guidance from regulators and the formation of a centralized ethical review committee for general practice.

THE 2012 World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) vision statement describes ‘A world that is safe and secure from the accidental or deliberate release of animal pathogens, including zoonoses.’ Infectious disease agents and toxins found in animal populations and products are a considerable on-going threat to global animal health, agricultural economies, food security (crops and livestock) and public health. To address this threat the OIE has developed a strategy of capacity building and solidarity that seeks to ensure all OIE member countries have the capacity, expertise, resources and governance to comply with international standards, guidelines and recommendations for the reduction of risk from animal pathogens through malicious use or accidental release. This strategy is being achieved through a number of initiatives including ‘the development of twinning between veterinary education establishments in order to promote relevant concepts on bio-threat awareness and reduction, and to create a culture of responsible and ethical science among students’ (OIE 2012). It was within this context that a twinning initiative between the Royal Veterinary College (RVC) and Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST) began in January 2015, with funding for an initial three year period to achieve biological threat reduction …

Contributors vii Foreword by John Webster x Preface xiii Session I Principles of Veterinary and Animal Ethics 1 Patrick Bateson 1 The History of Veterinary Ethics in Britain, ca. 1870 2000 3 Abigail Woods 2 The Idea of Animal Welfare Developments and Tensions 19 Peter Sandoe and Karsten Klint Jensen 3 Lessons from Medical Ethics 32 Carolyn Johnston 4 Veterinary Ethics, Professionalism and Society 44 Stephen A. May Session II Justifying Ends The Morality of Animal Use 59 Judy MacArthur Clark 5 Justice of Animal Use in the Veterinary Profession 63 Martin C. Whiting 6 Telos 75 Bernard E. Rollin 7 Agriculture, Animal Welfare and Climate Change 84 Steven P. McCulloch 8 Ethics and Ethical Analysis in Veterinary Science: The Development and Application of the Ethical Matrix Method 100 Kate Millar 9 The Ethics of Animal Enhancement 113 James Yeates Session III Ethical Analyses of Animal Use 133 Peter Jinman 10 Wildlife Medicine, Conservation and Welfare 135 James K. Kirkwood 11 Veterinary Ethics and the Use of Animals in Research: Are They Compatible? 155 Colin Gilbert and Sarah Wolfensohn 12 Production Animals: Ethical and Welfare Issues Raised by Production-focused Management of Newborn Livestock 174 David J. Mellor 13 Companion Animals 188 Sandra A. Corr 14 Ethical Analysis of the Use of Animals for Sport 201 Madeleine Campbell Session IV Cultural, Political, Legal and Economic Considerations 217 John Webster 15 Global Cultural Considerations of Animal Ethics 219 Michael C. Appleby 16 Animal Ethics and the Government s Policy: To Guard and Protect 229 Sophia Hepple and Nigel Gibbens 17 Veterinary Ethics and Law 245 Marie Fox 18 Ethical Citizenship 261 Bjorn Forkman 19 Principles, Preference and Profit: Animal Ethics in a Market Economy 271 John McInerney Debate: Is It Better to Have Lived and Lost than Never to Have Lived at All? 286 Patrick Bateson Index 300

The RVC and CABI have joined forces to host an annual free symposium on key topics in animal welfare, opening the opportunity for discussion and networking between stakeholders.

WE would like to draw attention to the case of a seven-week-old female chihuahua puppy weighing 750 g that was referred to the Royal Veterinary College's Queen Mother Hospital for Animals following accidental microchip placement through the caudal aspect of the skull and into the rostral brainstem. CT images were …

Martin Whiting is a lecturer in veterinary ethics and law at the Royal Veterinary College, and has submitted a PhD on the concept of justice within the profession. He is also interested in the ways in which vets and veterinary nurses behave in practice, including elements of the ethics of evidence-based veterinary medicine and informed consent

Articles in this series give readers the opportunity to consider and contribute to discussion of some of the ethical dilemmas that can arise in veterinary practice. Each month, a case scenario is presented, followed by discussion of some of the issues involved. In addition, a possible way forward is suggested; however, there is rarely a cut-and-dried answer in such cases, and readers may wish to suggest an alternative approach. This month9s dilemma, ‘Vaccinations and the Animal Welfare Act’, is presented and discussed by Martin Whiting. Readers with comments to contribute are invited to send them as soon as possible, so that they can be considered for publication in the next issue. Discussion of the dilemma ‘A corneal cat-astrophe?’, which was published in the January issue of In Practice , appears on page 103. The series is being coordinated by Siobhan Mullan, of the University of Bristol. It is hoped it will provide a framework that will help practices find solutions when facing similar dilemmas.

Reasons for performing study Treatment of colic can be expensive and may exceed the owners’ financial limitations. This may result in premature euthanasia prior to treatment on rectifiable financial grounds rather than for welfare reasons. It is therefore important to ensure appropriate business model auditing to identify where costs may limit expected treatment options. Objectives This study investigated how the costs of treatment for equine colic at a single university referral hospital have changed over a 10-year period between 2003 and 2013. The aim was to analyse which costs have changed excessively or disproportionately between different treating services, consumables and professional fees, which may render treatment of colic financially prohibitive. Study design Retrospective study. Methods All charges billed against cases undergoing treatment for colic between 2003 and 2013 were accessed from hospital records. Horses were identified as having surgery or purely medical management. Charges were categorised by service (medicine, surgery, anaesthesia), type (consumable, livery, professional fee), and consumable type (e.g. NSAID, opiate, antibiotic, fluid therapy, lab fee, surgery consumables). Results There was a significant association between year and the frequency of medically and surgically treated colic (Chi-square test, P

Background Current estimates of the UK dog population vary, contain potential sources of bias and are based on expensive, large scale, public surveys. Here, we evaluate the potential of a variety of sources for estimation and monitoring of the companion dog population in the UK and associated demographic information. The sources considered were: a public survey; veterinary practices; pet insurance companies; micro-chip records; Kennel Club registrations; and the Pet Travel Scheme. The public survey and subpopulation estimates from veterinary practices, pet insurance companies and Kennel Club registrations, were combined to generate distinct estimates of the UK owned dog population using a Bayesian approach. Results We estimated there are 9.4 (95% CI: 8.1-11.5) million companion dogs in the UK according to the public survey alone, which is similar to other recent estimates. The population was judged to be over-estimated by combining the public and veterinary surveys (16.4, 95% CI: 12.5-21.5 million) and under-estimated by combining the public survey and insured dog numbers (4.8, 95% CI: 3.6-6.9 million). An estimate based on combining the public survey and Kennel Club registered dogs was 7.1 (95% CI: 4.5-12.9) million. Based on Bayesian estimations, 77 (95% CI: 62-92)% of the UK dog population were registered at a veterinary practice; 42 (95% CI: 29-55)% of dogs were insured; and 29 (95% CI: 17-43)% of dogs were Kennel Club registered. Breed demographics suggested the Labrador was consistently the most popular breed registered in micro-chip records, with the Kennel Club and with J. Sainsbury's PLC pet insurance. A comparison of the demographics between these sources suggested that popular working breeds were under-represented and certain toy, utility and miniature breeds were over- represented in the Kennel Club registrations. Density maps were produced from micro-chip records based on the geographical distribution of dogs. Conclusions A list containing the breed of each insured dog was provided by J. Sainsbury's PLC pet insurance without any accompanying information about the dog or owner.

Twitter is increasingly used in education. In this article, Twitter was evaluated for its potential to aid veterinary students in their preparation for final examinations. "#VetFinals" revision sessions were facilitated by experts on a variety of topics. The initiative was evaluated through consideration of potential participants, session content and student experiences. In analysis of nine sessions, 52 students participated from eight veterinary schools. During a session, the facilitator tweeted 66 times on average, primarily asking a general question. Students on average tweeted 84 times, mostly in response to facilitators. They also asked novel questions and responded to fellow students. Focus groups and interviews with 11 students suggested that: sessions are useful for preparation/self-testing to succeed in exams; the facilitator and session style impact on learning; the sessions feel like personalized learning; there are elements of safety and exposure leading to some fear of tweeting; peer-learning promotes competition; a community of learners was formed; Twitter has become a part of normal professional life. Whilst not all students will take part in this type of social media use, many found it beneficial. The importance of the facilitator suggests the need for faculty development.