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The incorporation of traditional medicine into the mainstream health care delivery system particularly in some developing countries such as Ghana has resulted in reliable access to herbal medicines and their safe use. This has also led to a surge in the search for herbal alternatives, reformulation, and development of herbal medications in treating and managing diseases such as diabetes. Currently, the surging price of orthodox antidiabetics and their reported adverse effects from long term use has contributed to many Ghanaians switching to the use of phytomedicines as alternatives. The aim of this study is to formulate tea from the leaves of Tapinanthus bangwensis, family Loranthaceae to serve as an additional remedy for the management of diabetes.For standardization, quality control, and authentication of the formulation, FTIR, and HPLC analysis were conducted. The safety profile of the tea via determination of median lethal dose (LD50), microbial load, essential elements and toxic metal contents were also assessed. In addition, the pH, uniformity of mass, total water extractive and optimization of the extraction method were also investigated.The FTIR showed the presence of alcohols, esters, phenols and aromatic compounds. The HPLC fingerprint also showed 23 peaks with the highest peak having a retention time of 15.4 min. The extract also recorded a pH of 7.43 ± 0.02 at 26.1 °C and total water extractive of 39.37 ± 0.05 %w/w. The tea passed the uniformity of mass test with an average net mass of 3.0 ± 0.02 g. Optimum extraction of the tea was realised with 250 mL of freshly boiled water. The formulated tea was found to be safe since the determined LD50 was 50 times more than the daily dose. The microbial load, elemental and toxic metal contents were also within acceptable limits.This study has shown the possibility of introducing this tea at a safe dose as an additional herbal remedy for the management of diabetes.

Pharmaceutical formulations have traditionally relied on plants and their derivatives for various APIs and excipients. In Ghana, the widespread utilization of plantains, irrespective of their ripeness, generates significant waste at every stage of processing, posing disposal issues. Fascinatingly, these wastes, often discarded, possess significant economic potential and can be recycled into valuable raw materials or products. Pectin, a polysaccharide that occurs naturally, has seen a surge in interest in recent times. It has found widespread use in the pharmaceutical sector, particularly as a binding agent in tablet formulations. This study aimed to evaluate pectin from two popular plantain varieties, Apem (M) and Apantu (T) at different ripening stages, for pharmaceutical use as a binding agent in immediate-release tablets. The ripening stages selected were the matured-green (G), half-ripe (H), and full-ripe (R). Acid (D) and alkaline (L) mediums of extraction were employed for each ripening stage for both varieties. Wet granulation method was used to prepare the granules using paracetamol as a model drug, and their flow properties were subsequently assessed. Postcompression tests including, hardness, friability, weight uniformity, disintegration, assay, and in vitro dissolution were also assessed. Granules from all formulation batches had good flow properties indicated by their angle of repose (14.93 ± 1.41–21.80 ± 1.41), Hausner ratio (0.96 ± 0.27–1.22 ± 0.02), and compressibility (%) (7.69 ± 0.002–20.51 ± 0.002). All the tablets passed the uniformity of weight with none deviating by ±5%. The hardness of all the formulated tablets ranged between 3.96 ± 0.32 and 13.21 ± 0.36, while the friability for all tablets was below 1%. The drug content was between 100.1 ± 0.23% and 103.4 ± 0.01%. Tablets formulated with pectin as a binding agent at concentrations of 10% w/v and 15% w/v successfully met the disintegration test criteria for immediate release tablets. However, those prepared with a concentration of 20% w/v (MGL, MHD, MHL, MRD, MRL, TGL, THD, THL, and TRL) did not pass the disintegration test. Consequently, all batches of tablets successfully met the dissolution test requirement (Diss, Q > 75%), except for the batches that did not pass the disintegration test (Diss, Q

Fruit waste has emerged as a significant environmental issue in recent years, adding to the global burden. In Ghana, the extensive use of plantains at various stages of ripeness results in substantial waste during each processing stage, leading to disposal challenges. Interestingly, these wastes often hold considerable economic value and can be repurposed as a source of valuable raw materials or products. Given the broad range of uses for plantains and the significant pollution problems associated with their processing, finding new uses for this organic waste has become a pressing necessity. This study investigated the impact of the method of extraction and ripening stages on the physicochemical characteristics of pectin obtained from two different cultivars of plantains, namely, Apem (M) and Apantu (T), which are indigenous to Ghana. Pectin samples were extracted from different stages of ripening (matured-green (G), half-ripe (H), and full-ripe (R)) by the utilization of acidic (D) and alkaline (L) extraction methods. The analyses conducted on the extracted pectin included proximate composition and moisture content determination, assessment of mineral/elemental composition, and solubility testing. Phytochemical investigations were performed to determine the phytoconstituents present in these pectin extracts. The pectin samples were characterized by determining their equivalent weight, methoxyl and anhydrouronic acid content, and the degree of esterification. The pectin yields obtained from the samples ranged from 10.01% to 46.55%. The moisture levels of all the pectins were below 20%. All pectin samples had swelling indexes between 37.5 ± 0.01% and 185.71 ± 0.02%. The equivalent weight (EW) of the pectin samples ranged from 1351.00 ± 0.6 g/mol to 10000.00 ± 0.07 g/mol. The methoxyl content (MeO) fell within the range of 6.2 ± 0.07% to 14.88 ± 0.14%, while the anhydrouronic acid content (AUA) varied between 38.72 ± 0.28% and 86.59 ± 0.21%. The degree of esterification (DE) ranged from 81.22 ± 0.21% to 97.56 ± 0.14%. Furthermore, the result of the micronutrient and mineral analysis indicated compliance with nutritional requirements. The levels of heavy metals were also within acceptable thresholds, thereby adhering to existing regulatory requirements. These findings highlight the significance of both the extraction technique and the ripening stage on the physicochemical properties of the extracted pectins. Generally, the extracted pectins possess excellent nutritional quality and physicochemical properties, rendering them a very valuable resource that holds promising potential for use in the food and pharmaceutical sectors.

Abstract: The focus of most pharmaceutical research in recent times has been the use of natural products like gums as pharmaceutical excipients because they are safer, economical and readily available. This study aimed to investigate the applicability of gum extracted from the exudates from the stem bark of Pentadesma butyracea as a binder in conventional release tablets using acacia gum as a reference polymer. The purified Pentadesma butyracea gum (PBG) was precipitated from the crude gum mucilage using 96% ethanol. Conventional-release paracetamol tablets were formulated using seven (7) different concentrations of the PBG mucilage (0.5 – 6 %w/w) as a binder via wet granulation (PB1 – PB7). The same approach was used for the reference conventional release paracetamol tablets (AC1- AC7). The drug-excipients and excipients-gum compatibility studies were evaluated using the FTIR. The formulated tablets were evaluated using both pharmacopoeia and non-pharmacopoeia tests. Appropriate mathematical models were used to determine the similarity (f2) and the difference (f1) factors of the dissolution profiles of the test and reference formulations. Granules for batches PB1, AC1, PB2, AC2 and AC3 had fair flow properties, whereas the rest had good flow properties. The FTIR studies showed no interactions between the drug and excipients. All formulations passed the pharmacopoeia and non- pharmacopoeia tests except for formulations PB1, PB2, PB3 and AC1 which failed the friability test, PB1 and AC1 which failed the hardness test, and AC7 which also failed the disintegration test. An increase in gum concentration led to a corresponding increase in the mechanical properties of the tablets. A comparative study showed no significant difference in the hardness and tensile strength of the test and reference tablets. All formulations except PB6 were similar to their reference formulations since f1 > 50 and f2 < 15. In conclusion, the PBG exhibited a good binding property comparable to acacia gum.

Abstract Background Medicinal plants represent a valuable source for new effective and safe antimicrobial drugs making them an alternative therapy. Existing antimicrobial agents are costly and mostly associated with possible side effects. The aim of the present study therefore, was to assess the antimicrobial property and phytochemical composition of hydroethanolic extract of Tapinanthus bangwensis leaves and its fractions. Method T. bangwensis leaves (harvested from its host plant, Persea americana) was extracted by cold maceration with 70% ethanol and further fractionated with different organic solvents using the solvent partitioning method to obtain the crude extract, petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and the resulting aqueous fractions. The phytochemical constituents of the extracts were screened and quantified. Also, the TLC of the extracts were analyzed to serve as a fingerprint. Using the agar diffusion and broth dilution methods, the antimicrobial properties of the extracts were assessed. Results The study showed that the hydroethanolic (70%) crude extract of T. bangwensis leaves and its fractions contain phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saponins, phytosterols and reducing sugars. The phytoconstituents were well extracted into the ethyl acetate fraction than the other fractions evidenced in the high levels (p

Utilization of plant extracts for the synthesis of nanomaterials is a green technology that is safe to the environment. In the current study, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) was synthesised using the methanolic root bark extract of Cassia sieberiana as capping and stabilizing agents for the first time. The ZnO NPs were then characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV–Vis spectroscopy, transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of the nanoparticles were analyzed by egg albumin (EA) denaturation assay and DPPH free radical scavenging assay respectively. The agar well diffusion method was also used to access the antimicrobial activity of the ZnO NPs against S. aureus (gram-positive), E. coli (gram-negative), S. typhi (gram-negative) and C. albicans (yeast). Saponins, anthracenosides, triterpenes and polyphenols were the phytochemicals present in the plant extract. The average particle size (TEM) determined was 12.9 ± 3.1 nm with spherical shapes. ZnO NPs demonstrated good antioxidant activity (IC50 = 0.480 ± 0.018 mg mL−1) and dose-dependently inhibited the heat-induced denaturation of egg albumin (IC50 = 0.676 ± 0.000 mg mL−1). In general, the synthesized ZnO NPs showed a positive anti-microbial activity against the selected microbes. The ZnO NPs showed a significant zone of inhibition for S. typhi (20.0 mm), S. aureus (24.0 mm), whereas the zone of inhibition was less for E. coli (13.7 mm) and C. albicans (11.7 mm) at 25 mg/mL. The green synthesized ZnO NPs may be used as an effective drug delivery system.

A combination of inorganic and organic hybrid systems is of high research interest as they provide novel hybrid systems for the improvement of existing properties, overcoming limitations of the parent materials, and for the optimization of their controlled release potential. This study sorted to develop and pharmaceutically assess the release profile of diclofenac sodium using cocoa pod husk (CPH) blended with different proportions of either talc or bentonite as multiparticulate composite release modifiers. Preformulation investigations of the multiparticulate hybrid systems included pH, swelling index, moisture content, elemental contents, and flow properties. The FTIR was also used to investigate the compatibilities between pectin and bentonite (PB), pectin and talc (PT), and diclofenac and pectin-talc (DPT), as well as diclofenac and pectin-bentonite (DPB). The diclofenac content, uniformity of the weight of capsules, in vitro drug release, and the kinetics and mechanism of release of diclofenac from the hybrid systems were also investigated using mathematical models. The pectin yield was 23.3%, with the water-holding capacities of pectin-talc (PT) and pectin-bentonite (PB) hybrid systems being 6.4% and 5.0%, respectively. The swelling indices of PT and PB were 110.0 and 130.0 in 0.1 M HCL at pH 1.2 and 130.0 and 149.0 in phosphate buffer at pH 6.8, respectively. This system was also found to exhibit excellent flow properties, and there were no diclofenac-excipient interactions. All formulated batches passed the pharmacopoeial and nonpharmacopoeial tests. They also demonstrated controlled release properties via different release kinetics and mechanisms. This study shows that the pectin-talc and pectin-bentonite multiparticulate composites could be used as release modifiers in pharmaceutical preparations.

Natural polymers such as pectin have gained increased utilization in pharmaceutical and biotechnology sectors because they are affordable, easily accessible, nontoxic, and chemically modifiable, with the potential to be biodegradable and biocompatible. Musa paradisiaca (plantain) peels make up 30–40% of the overall weight of the fruit. The extraction of pectin from these residues can therefore be viewed as a possible waste of wealth. This study, therefore, focused on evaluating the suspending properties of pectin obtained from Musa paradisiaca (plantain) peels (through acid and alkaline extraction) and presented an alternative suspending agent in the pharmaceutical formulation of suspensions. The unripe peels of Musa paradisiaca were acquired and authenticated at the Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. Pectin was extracted from the peels using both acid and alkaline extraction processes, respectively, characterized, and evaluated for its phytochemical properties. Different concentrations of the acid and alkaline pectin extracts were employed as a suspending agent in paracetamol suspensions, using acacia gum as a standard. The pectin yields obtained were 4.88% and 7.61% for the acid and alkaline extraction processes, respectively, while phytochemical screening revealed the presence of glycosides, tannins, saponins, and phenols in both extracts. The alkaline pectin extract recorded higher equivalent weight, degree of esterification, ash content, and crude content than the acid pectin extract, while FTIR identified similar functional groups in both acid and alkaline pectin extracts. The test suspensions reported significant differences (P

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Bridelia ferruginea belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, identified as an important commonly growing shrub, is used in traditional medicine for managing arthritis, dysentery, constipation, chronic diabetes, skin diseases, bladder and intestinal disorders, oral infections, thrush, bites and as an arrow poison antidote. This review aims at providing information on the traditional medicinal uses, pharmacological activities, phytochemistry and toxicity studies of Bridelia ferruginea to bridge the gap between traditional medicinal uses and preclinical studies on B. ferruginea and subsequently lead to the development of valued added medicines from B. ferruginea. Materials and methods: Data in this review were compiled using databases such as Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, Springer link, Elsevier and Taylor and Francis, articles from peer reviewed journals and other grey literature (short notes, book chapters, short communications) to access all the relevant information available on B. ferruginea. Results: B. ferruginea contains different phytochemicals including flavonoids, phenolics, phytosterols, triterpenes, saponins, alkaloids and cardiac glycosides. Gallocatechin-(4′-O-7)-epigallocatechin, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,3,4,5-tetracaffeoylquinic acid and some derivatives of 3-methoxyflavone, such as quercetin-3-methyl ether, quercetin 3-,7,3′,4′-tetramethyl ether, myricetin 3′,4′,5′-trimethyl ether, myricetin 3,3′,4′,5′-tetramethyl ether, myricetin and quercetin 3-O-glucoside specific flavonoids and biflavonoids like apigenin, kaempferol and glycosides of both have been isolated and further characterized from B. ferruginea. B. ferruginea has several pharmacologically beneficial properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-infective, antipyretic, analgesic, diuretic and natriuretic activities. Conclusion: The wide distribution, traditional medicinal uses and wealth of phytochemicals present in B. ferruginea suggests that the plant can be useful in lead compound discovery. Although B. ferruginea has been widely studied, further studies on the mechanism of action, bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and side effects in humans need to be investigated.

Elimination of microorganisms from herbal products has been a major concern due to its implicated health risk to consumers. Drying of herbal materials has been employed for centuries to reduce the risk of contamination and spoilage. The present study adopted three drying approaches in an attempt to eliminate microorganisms from Lippia multiflora tea bag formulation. This study also evaluated the tea bags and optimized the extraction procedure. The L. multiflora leaves for tea bagging were air-dried and milled (A), oven-dried and milled (B), and microwaved (the milled air-dried leaves) (C). The moisture contents were determined at 105°C ± 2°C for 2 hours to constant weight. Phytochemical parameters such as phytochemical constituents, total water extractive, and pH were assessed. The microbial safety and quality of the L. multiflora tea bags were evaluated using the British Pharmacopoeia 2019 specifications. The uniformity of the mass of the formulated tea bags was also determined. Extraction from the Lippia tea bags was optimized. The results showed that using the approaches (A, B, and C) adopted for drying and processing, the moisture contents of the formulated tea bags were in the range of 9.75–10.71% w/w. All the formulated tea bags contained reducing sugars, phenolic compounds, polyuronides, flavonoids, anthracenosides, alkaloids, saponins, and phytosterols. The pH range of the formulations was 7.11–7.54, whereas the total water extractive values were in the range of 19.12–20.41% w/w. The one-way analysis of variance demonstrated no significant difference in the data obtained from the results from A, B, and C. The formulation from A was found to be unsafe for consumption due to unacceptable microbial contamination limits. Microbial load of the formulations from B and C were within the BP specifications. All the batches of the formulations passed the uniformity of mass test. An optimized extraction procedure was obtained when one tea bag was extracted in 250 mL of hot water within the specified time. L. multiflora leaves meant for tea bagging should be oven-dried or microwaved before tea bagging for safe consumption.

Antiaris is a monoherbal decoction produced by the Centre for Plant Medicine Research (CPMR), Mampong-Akuapem, Ghana. It is prepared from the stem bark of Antiaris africana Engl. (Moraceae), prescribed, and dispensed to patients for the management of nervous disorders. This current formulation presents notable challenges in patients’ adherence to treatment regimen due to its bulkiness and bitterness. These challenges have resulted in a decrease in therapeutic outcome. This study sought to transform Antiaris into oral capsules to mask its bitter taste and reduce bulkiness of the product to improve patients’ convenience. In this study, four (4) conventional release capsule formulations were successfully prepared from the decoction via wet granulation using corn starch, lactose, light magnesium carbonate (LMC), and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and labelled A01, A02, A03, and A04 respectively. The drug-excipient compatibility studies on A01, A02, A03, and A04 were investigated using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The flow properties of the granules as well as the quality assessment of the formulations such as dissolution, disintegration, uniformity of weight, and assay tests were evaluated using pharmacopoeial and nonpharmacopoeial methods. Appropriate models were used to investigate the difference factor (f1) and similarity factor (f2) of the dissolution profiles of the formulations and Antiaris. From the study, all formulated granules had excellent flow properties with Carr’s index from 7.83 to 9.56%, Hausner’s ratio from 1.09 to 1.10, and angle of repose from 25.13 to 27.87°. Drug-excipient compatibility studies demonstrated no interaction between extract and used excipients. All formulations passed the uniformity of weight, disintegration, assay, and dissolution tests. Formulation A02 had the highest dissolution efficiency of 100.12%, while A03 recorded the least value of 97.22% in the 1 h dissolution studies. A comparison of their various dissolution profiles, respectively, to that of its decoction demonstrated their similarity, since, in all comparisons, f2 50. This implies that, any of these four formulations could be a good substitute for Antiaris.

Peptic ulcer disease affects many people globally. With the increasing resistance to some orthodox antibiotics such as Clarithromycin and Metronidazole, it is important that new acceptable, safer and effective therapies are developed to manage this disease. Various herbal medicines have been used traditionally for the remedy of peptic ulcer disease (PUD), however scientific information with regards to their anti-peptic ulcer both in-vivo and in-vitro as well as clinical studies supporting their use is still inadequate. The Centre for Plant Medicine Research, (CPMR) Mampong-Akuapem, Ghana manufactures three herbal Products namely Enterica, Dyspepsia and NPK 500 capsules which are currently used for the remedy of PUD as a triple therapy at its out-patient clinic with promising effects. The aim of this review is to gather information from literature on the anti-ulcer properties, pharmacological, phytochemical constituents and related activities of herbal plants used at the CPMR for formulation of the triple herbal therapy. This review may, provide some scientific bases for the use of Enterica, Dyspepsia and NPK 500 capsules in the management of Peptic ulcer at the CPMR out-patient clinic. Methods: Organization for the review involved the on and/or offline search for information from available literature using electronic data and scientific research information resources such as PubMed, Science Direct and Google scholar. Results: In this review, fifteen ethno-medicinal plants used for the formulation of Enterica, Dyspepsia and NPK capsules have been discussed, presenting the description of the plants, composition and pharmacological activity. Interpretation: Tables with the summary of reviewed medicinal plants with their anti-ulcer models and inference on possible mechanisms of action were drawn up. The mechanism(s) of action of individual plants and products (Enterica, Dyspepsia and NPK 500 capsules) must be further investigated and established experimentally in-vitro in addition to in-vivo pharmacological and clinical activity studies to confirm their use in the remedy of PUD.

In Ghana, the encapsulated blend of the powdered stem and root bark of Cassia sieberiana is prescribed and dispensed to patients at the Centre for Plant Medicine Research (CPMR), for the management of dysmenorrhea and gastric ulcer pain. This current formulation has significant challenges in manufacturing and optimization of therapeutic outcomes due to lack of standardization of actual quantities of the extracts obtained from ingestion of the product. The study sought to formulate and evaluate capsules of Cassia sieberiana using the stem and root bark. Extraction was undertaken with different solvents: absolute ethanol (F1) and 70% ethanol (F2). These 2 formulations were compared to the existing product (MP1) by CPMR. Granules for encapsulation were prepared by wet granulation and their flow properties compared with MP1. Drug-excipient compatibility was studied using FT-IR, TLC and UV. Quality control tests on MP1, F1 and F2 capsules were conducted using pharmacopoieal methods. From the results obtained, organoleptic and physicochemical properties of the extracts demonstrated its suitability for use in oral capsule formulation. MP1, F1 and F2 recorded a λmax of 278 nm, 278 nm and 276 nm, respectively. The extract per dose of capsules was found to be 27.84 ± 0.11 mg and 36.65 ± 0.03 mg for F1 and F2, respectively. Granules of F1 and F2 had good flow properties whereas MP1 demonstrated a fair flow property. FT-IR spectra showed possible interaction between extracts and excipients. However, TLC results indicated similar compounds present in the extracts and granules. The UV marker analysis also indicated no interaction since the percentage drug contents in F1 and F2 capsules were found to be 98.0% ± 1.40 and 98.90% ± 2.80 respectively. All 3 formulations passed the disintegration and uniformity of weight tests except MP1 which failed the latter. F1 capsules recorded the highest dissolution efficiency (99%) while MP1 recorded the lowest (22%). There was significant difference (p < 0.0001) in the release of Cassia sieberiana among the three formulations. This study has demonstrated the potential replacement of Cassia sieberiana capsules on the market with capsules developed from its extract with F1 capsules being the most desirable.