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Bats are natural reservoirs for several zoonotic viruses, potentially due to an enhanced capacity to control viral infection. However, the mechanisms of antiviral responses in bats are poorly defined. Here we established a Jamaican fruit bat (JFB) intestinal organoid model of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. JFB organoids were susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, with increased viral RNA and subgenomic RNA detected in cell lysates and supernatants. Gene expression of type I interferons and inflammatory cytokines was induced in response to SARS-CoV-2 but not in response to TLR agonists. Interestingly, SARS-CoV-2 did not lead to cytopathic effects in JFB organoids but caused enhanced organoid growth. Proteomic analyses revealed an increase in inflammatory signaling, cell turnover, cell repair, and SARS-CoV-2 infection pathways. Collectively, our findings suggest that primary JFB intestinal epithelial cells can mount a successful antiviral interferon response and that SARS-CoV-2 infection in JFB cells induces protective regenerative pathways.

Retinoic acid (RA) is an active derivative of vitamin A and a key regulator of immune cell function. In dendritic cells (DCs), RA drives the expression of CD103 (integrin α (E)), a functionally relevant DC subset marker. In this study, we analyzed the cell type specificity and the molecular mechanisms involved in RA‐induced CD103 expression. We show that RA treatment caused a significant up‐regulation of CD103 in differentiated monocyte‐derived DCs and blood DCs, but not in differentiated monocyte‐derived macrophages or T cells. DC treatment with an RA receptor α (RARα) agonist led to an increase in CD103 expression similar to that in RA treatment, whereas RARA gene silencing with small interfering RNA blocked RA‐induced up‐regulation of CD103, pointing to a major role of RARα in the regulation of CD103 expression. To elucidate RA‐induced signaling downstream of RARα, we used Western blot analysis of RA‐treated DCs and showed a significant increase of p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation. In addition, DCs cultured with RA and a p38 MAPK inhibitor had a significantly reduced expression of CD103 compared with DCs cultured with RA only, indicating that p38 MAPK is involved in CD103 regulation. In summary, these findings suggest that the RA‐induced expression of CD103 is specific to DCs, is mediated primarily through RARα and involves p38 MAPK signaling.

The interactions of dendritic cells (DCs) with the gastric epithelium are thought to play a role in shaping DC function and thus the adaptive immune response to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection. We have shown that DCs are recruited to the H. pylori-infected gastric epithelium, positioning them for uptake of bacterial antigen from the gastric lumen. Using a gastric organoid model of H. pylori infection, we sought to define how the interactions between gastric epithelial cells and DCs regulate the antigen-presenting cell capacity of DCs. Supernatants were collected from organoids microinjected with H. pylori (infected) or PBS (mock), and monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs) were incubated with these supernatants. Flow cytometry data showed that the supernatant from infected organoids drove the DCs toward a tolerogenic state, as the expression of CD40, CD83, and CD86 was significantly decreased compared to incubation with supernatants from mock infected organoids, whereas CCR7 expression was increased consistent with a more tolerogenic phenotype. DCs treated with supernatants from infected, but not mock-infected organoids suppressed the proliferation of naïve autologous T cells. We also assessed T cell polarization using a cytokine array and found an increase in Th1, Th17 and Treg cytokines, but a decrease in Th2 cytokines in T cells that were challenged with DCs pre-treated with supernatants from infected organoids compared to mock-infected organoids. In summary, we have shown that H. pylori-infected gastric epithelium drives the DCs toward a tolerogenic state, resulting in reduced expression of maturation markers and CD4+ T cell proliferation while maintaining the DCs’ ability to induce T cell cytokine secretion.

Background & Aims: Gastric dendritic cells (DCs) control the adaptive response to infection with Helicobacter pylori, a major risk factor for peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer. We hypothesize that DC interactions with the gastric epithelium position gastric DCs for uptake of luminal H pylori and promote DC responses to epithelial-derived mediators. The aim of this study was to determine whether the gastric epithelium actively recruits DCs using a novel co-culture model of human gastric epithelial spheroids and monocyte-derived DCs. Methods: Spheroid cultures of primary gastric epithelial cells were infected with H pylori by microinjection. Co-cultures were established by adding human monocyte-derived DCs to the spheroid cultures and were analyzed for DC recruitment and antigen uptake by confocal microscopy. Protein array, gene expression polymerase chain reaction array, and chemotaxis assays were used to identify epithelial-derived chemotactic factors that attract DCs. Data from the co-culture model were confirmed using human gastric tissue samples. Results: Human monocyte-derived DCs co-cultured with gastric spheroids spontaneously migrated to the gastric epithelium, established tight interactions with the epithelial cells, and phagocytosed luminally applied H pylori. DC recruitment was increased upon H pylori infection of the spheroids and involved the activity of multiple chemokines including CXCL1, CXCL16, CXCL17, and CCL20. Enhanced chemokine expression and DC recruitment to the gastric epithelium also was observed in H pylori–infected human gastric tissue samples. Conclusions: Our results indicate that the gastric epithelium actively recruits DCs for immunosurveillance and pathogen sampling through chemokine-dependent mechanisms, with increased recruitment upon active H pylori infection. Keywords: Stomach, Organoid, Mononuclear Phagocyte, In Vitro Model