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This study analyses the specific neuropsychological profiles of children with dyslexia and/or dyscalculia, in particular concerning phonological awareness, lexical access, working memory and numerical processing. Four groups were selected, through a screening process that used strict criteria, from 1568 7-10-year-old children: 90 with typical development, 61 with dyslexia, 13 with dyscalculia, and 14 with dyslexia + dyscalculia. Children with dyslexia show a deficit in phonological processing, lexical access, and verbal working memory, especially with alphabetic stimuli. Children with developmental dyscalculia show a deficit of phonological processing, verbal working memory with digits and visual-spatial working memory. They also show an impairment in spatial representation of numbers and in the automatic access to numerical semantics to a greater extent than those with double disturbance. Children with dyslexia + dyscalculia show a profile generally characterized by the summation of the deficits of the two disorders, although they have a lower deficit in access to numerical semantics and mental representation of numbers.

Two neurodevelopmental conditions, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), have been associated with executive function (EF) impairments but the specificity of their impairments is still controversial. The present meta-analysis aimed to identify the differences in EF profiles of ASD, ADHD, and ASD+ADHD in relation to a control group of individuals with typical development (TD) and to understand whether the EF performance could change depending upon the type of measure used to assess EF (performance tests vs. questionnaires). Results from 36 eligible studies revealed that ADHD and ASD showed more difficulties than the TD group in tests and, particularly, in questionnaires. No significant differences in the EF profile emerged between ASD and ADHD when assessed through neuropsychological tests (d = 0.02), while significant differences emerged when assessed through questionnaires, with ADHD having higher ratings than ASD (d = −0.34). EF questionnaires and neuropsychological tests may catch two different constructs of EF, with the former being more predictive of everyday life EF impairments. The comparison between the double diagnosis group (ADHD+ASD) and the clinical groups pointed out that the former has a more similar EF profile to the ADHD-alone one and that it shows more difficulties than ASD-alone.

La presente ricerca analizza le competenze relative alle Funzioni Esecutive di un campione di 59 bambini con sviluppo tipico o difficoltà attentive/iperattività (sintomi ADHD) di età compresa tra i 7 e i 13 anni, sottoposti a una serie di test neuropsicologici (batteria TeleFE) e valutazioni da parte di genitori e insegnanti, tramite questionari standardizzati (Conners 3 e QUFE). Data la numerosità delle variabili per ciascun test sono state estratte e selezionate le misure principali. La memoria di lavoro risulta l’abilità più deficitaria nel caso di difficoltà combinate Inattentive/Iperattività (Inatt/Iper). Per tutte le variabili considerate, il profilo inattentivo (Inatt) sembra mostrare difficoltà più generalizzate, identificandosi come la forma maggiormente disesecutiva. Tali risultati sono confermati dalle analisi di correlazione svolte sui questionari Conners 3, i quali hanno, inoltre, sottolineato una concordanza tra la valutazione degli insegnanti e il funzionamento esecutivo (in particolare, nel fattore esecutivo generale e nella memoria). Infine, le risposte dei docenti al QUFE sono riuscite a discernere sensibilmente le prestazioni esecutive di bambini con sintomi di attenzione/iperattività da quelli a sviluppo tipico e non, imputando però maggiori difficoltà ai profili combinati Inatt/Iper.

The Preschool Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Questionario di Valutazione dell'Autoregolazione [QUVA-p]) is a teacher-completed screening tool for assessing child dysregulation at preschool age. This study presents the psychometric properties of the questionnaire, which was investigated in a sample of 413 preschoolers. We tested for construct validity, measurement invariance across gender, subscale internal consistency, subscale convergent validity with executive control tasks (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility), and power to detect child differences in executive control. Results show that the factorial structure of the QUVA-p is in line with Nigg's theoretical model of self-regulation and the subscales have good reliability. Measurement invariance is maintained across gender; the instrument reveals small but significant associations with executive control tasks, and it could be useful to detect child differences in executive control.

The main aim of this longitudinal study was to evaluate if a questionnaire measuring the sense of time, filled in by teachers and parents in the last year of kindergarten, was able to predict children's time-processing skills at the end of 1st grade. The sample included 131 children (initial mean age = 4.77 ± 0.29 years) tested three times in a 2-year period with tasks of time reproduction, time discrimination, and comparison of durations. One of their parents and teachers filled in a questionnaire about children's sense of time both in kindergarten and 1st grade. The teacher version of the questionnaire administered in kindergarten was able to predict most of the time-processing tasks at the end of 1st grade. The parent version of the questionnaire was not able to predict children's performance in these tasks. Different developmental trajectories of time reproduction and time discrimination were observed. This study supports the role of preschool teachers as skilled evaluators of children's time-processing skills.

This paper is aimed at investigating the clinical properties of the Italian Battery for ADHD (BIA) in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) markers and evaluating the cognitive processes involved in these developmental disorders. The participants were: 133 with typical development (TD), 41 children with ADHD-traits, 14 with ODD-traits and 15 with SLD-traits. All participants were assessed using the BIA tests and other non-executive tests in order to control for executive and non-executive components. Results showed that BIA is effective to discriminate between the ADHD and TD group, in particular as regarding four specific tests assessing inhibitory control and sustained attention: Ranette, Auditory Attention, Numeric Stroop (errors) and CP (omissions). On the other hand, children with ODD performed more poorly than TD on MF and CP supporting the presence of impulsivity and visual search deficit in this group of children, while the SLD did not show any significant impairment. Results have been discussed in terms of the capacity of the BIA to distinguish children with ADHD, ODD or SLD.

Executive Functions (EFs) are high-order cognitive processes relevant to learning and adaptation and frequently impaired in children with specific learning disorders (SLDs). This study aimed to investigate EFs in children with SLD and explore the role of specific EF-related subprocesses, such as stimuli processing and processing speed. Fifty-seven SLD and 114 typically developing (TD) children, matched for gender and age, completed four tasks measuring response inhibition, interference control, shifting, and updating on a web-based teleassessment platform. The results show that SLD children performed lower in all EF tasks than TD children, regardless of stimulus type and condition. Mediation analyses suggested that differences between the SLD and TD groups are mediated by EF-related subprocesses, offering an interpretative model of EF deficits in children with SLD.

L’autoregolazione, nelle componenti emotiva, comportamentale e cognitiva (Funzioni Esecutive), assume un ruolo chiave nello sviluppo, sia tipico sia atipico, dei bambini. Il Training FEREA è un trattamento che, in seguito ai primi dati di efficacia del 2021, è in continuo aggiornamento per garantire ai bambini e alle famiglie una presa in carico efficace ma anche sostenibile: il nostro ultimo studio include 22 bambini dai 3 ai 9 anni con diversi quadri diagnostici, che hanno svolto 10 sessioni di terapia individuale o di gruppo per l’autoregolazione e le funzioni esecutive. Tra questi, 8 famiglie hanno partecipato attivamente al percorso tramite almeno 2 incontri di consulenza FEREA Parenting per genitori e almeno 1 incontro di FEREA @School per i propri insegnanti. Il training con il bambino include giochi e attività motivanti, sfidanti e personalizzate per stimolare il controllo inibitorio, la memoria di lavoro e la flessibilità. Gli incontri con i genitori si incentrano sul concetto di parenting positivo, mentre con gli insegnanti si lavora sulla gestione delle difficoltà di attenzione e comportamento. L’efficacia del training, nelle modalità «solo bambino» e «multimodale» è stata valutata tramite il questionario per le funzioni esecutive QUFE e il questionario per l’autoregolazione QOSA-P, compilato dai genitori (pre vs post). I risultati preliminari indicano miglioramenti significativi per tutti i bambini a prescindere dalla diagnosi e dall’età, ma comunque maggiori per i bambini prescolari.

Executive functions (EFs) and narrative competence (NC) are two important predictors of many outcomes in human development. To date, however, it is unclear whether these skills develop synergistically—supporting or opposing each other—or whether they are independent of each other. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to understand if these skills are related to over development and if the magnitude of their association changes over time; differs in typical and atypical development; and changes with EF (inhibition, working memory, flexibility, planning) and NC (oral, written; micro and macrostructural level). For this purpose, 30 studies containing 285 effect sizes were selected and combined. The results show that EFs and NC are weakly associated with each other (r = 0.236, p < 0.001) and that this association decreases with age (b(267) = −0.0144, p = 0.001). They are more associated in preschool and early elementary school grades, becoming more independent after seven years old. Between 3 and 7 years of age, the association seems stronger in atypically developing children and for macrostructural NC. Additionally, before 7 years old, the various EF domains seem to associate indistinctly with NC, and only later specific links between EFs and NC would be observed.

In recent decades, the utility of cognitive tele-assessment has increasingly been highlighted, both in adults and in children. The present study aimed to present TeleFE, a new tool for the tele-assessment of EF in children aged 6–13. TeleFE consists of a web platform including four tasks based on robust neuropsychological paradigms to evaluate inhibition, interference suppression, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning. It also includes questionnaires on EF for teachers and parents, to obtain information on the everyday functioning of the children. As TeleFE allows the assessment of EF both remotely and in-person, a comparison of the two modalities was conducted by administering TeleFE to 1288 Italian primary school children. A series of ANOVA was conducted, showing no significant effect of assessment modality (p > 0.05 for all the measures). In addition, significant differences by class emerged for all the measures (p < 0.001 for all the measures except p = 0.008 for planning). Finally, a significant sex effect emerged for inhibition (p < 0.001) and for the reaction times in both interference control (p = 0.013) and cognitive flexibility (p < 0.001), with boys showing a lower inhibition and faster reaction times. The implications of these results along with the indications for the choice of remote assessment are discussed.

Preschool age is a golden period for the emergence of executive functions (EFs) that, in turn, predict learning and adaptive behavior throughout all life. The study was aimed to identify which EFs measures significantly explained the learning prerequisites and the mediation role of self-regulatory and executive behavior recorded in structured or free settings. One hundred and twenty-seven preschoolers were remotely assessed by standardized tests of response inhibition, working memory, control of interference, and cognitive flexibility. Teachers provided a global measure of learning prerequisites by an observational questionnaire. Self-regulatory behavior during the assessment was evaluated by a rating scale filled by the examiners. Executive function behavior in daily life was measured by a questionnaire filled by parents. Accuracy in tasks of response inhibition and working memory explained about 48% of the variability in learning prerequisites while response speed and accuracy in the control of interference and in cognitive flexibility were not significant. EFs also had indirect effects, mediated by the child’s self-regulatory behavior evaluated during the assessment but not in daily life. The results are interpreted with respect to the contribution of the main EF components to school readiness and the mediation of the child behavior as measured in structure contexts.

Motor abnormalities are highly prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorder and are strongly predictive of adaptive functioning. Despite the documented sex bias in the prevalence of the disorder, the impact of sex differences on motor abnormalities has been overlooked. The goal of this study was to investigate differences in the motor profile of boys and girls with autism spectrum disorder aged 3–11 years using a multimethod approach. Ninety-eight children with autism spectrum disorder and 98 typically developing children were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, and the kinematic analysis of a reach-to-drop task. Results from principal components analysis on reach-to-drop-dependent measures indicated four components, accounting for kinematic parameters of the motor task. Irrespective of sex, children with autism spectrum disorder showed worse scores on Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2 and Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire subscales than typically developing children. Interestingly, a diagnosis-by-sex interaction was found on a kinematic feature measured in the last part of the movement, with girls with autism spectrum disorder presenting altered motor anticipation. Although preliminary, these findings suggested that sex-related nuances in motor functioning of children with autism spectrum disorder could be insufficiently captured by existing motor measures. Lay abstract: Motor peculiarities are often reported in children with autism spectrum disorder and may predict subsequent adaptive functioning and quality of life. Although the sex bias in the prevalence of the disorder is well documented, little is known about differences in motor profile in males and females with autism spectrum disorder. Our goal was to study differences in motor functioning of boys and girls with autism spectrum disorder aged 3–11 years compared with typically developing children

The study analyses the dimensionality of executive functions (EF) and its relationship with behavior in typically developing 3- and 4-year-old children. In study 1, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to investigate the validity of a one-factor model in 117 preschoolers. Since this model was not confirmed, a two-factor model was identified through exploratory factor analysis. In study 2, the validity of the new two-factor versus one-factor model was tested on a new sample of 128 children through a series of CFAs. The relationship between the models and specific behavioral aspects of the children was investigated. The results suggest that a bidimensional structure showed a better fit to the data and more ecological validity than a unitary structure.

A workshop on the role of Executive Functions (EF) in the development of Narrative Competence (NC). EF and NC, taken singly, are two over-investigated domains. However, our knowledge about if and how they related to each other across development is limited. In this intervention I summarized the state of art on this argument, presenting the results of a meta-analysis we have conducted. Implications for clinical and educational practice are discussed. I also provided guidelines for future research on this topic.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between self-esteem, school well-being and academic achievement in a sample of 8 to 13 year-old-students, taking into account the student, parent and teacher’s point of view. This study has confirmed the existance of a reciprocal influence between the child’s educational achievement and his/her school self-esteem. According to the findings of this investigation, the main factors related with academic self-esteem are the anxiety level, the learning skills and school well-being. The learning skills and school well-being are also significantly related with academic achievement, on the contrary anxiety is a mediator of these relationships. This research may be useful for the development of programs and strategies to promote child’s well-being, self-esteem and success at school having parent’s and teacher’s involvement.

The QUVA-p is a screening tool for identifying preschoolers with self-regulation difficulties. In the present study, preliminary normative age-related data (3, 4, 5 years) are provided separately for males and females and the relationship between self-regulation difficulties and adaptation is analyzed. The questionnaire is preschool teacher-completed, easy and quick to fill-out, and showed good psychometric properties. It can be valuable for the clinician in the early stage of the assessment to detect self-regulation problems potentially predicting Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD).

Le difficoltà di attenzione sono una caratteristica presente in più disturbi del neurosviluppo, ma hanno un ruolo predominante nel Disturbo da Deficit di Attenzione e Iperattività (ADHD). Tale disturbo è spesso caratterizzato anche da difficoltà a livello delle funzioni esecutive (FE), quali memoria di lavoro, pianificazione, flessibilità e inibizione. Il presente articolo illustra l’applicazione di un intervento di potenziamento cognitivo, focalizzato in particolar modo sulle funzioni esecutive, in bambini con difficoltà attentive. Il training cognitivo prevede attività carta-matita, attività computerizzate e game training. La valutazione pre e post-trattamento include test specifici rivolti a bambini e questionari consegnati ai rispettivi genitori e insegnanti. L’intervento ha mostrato effetti positivi sia sulle funzioni esecutive che a livello comportamentale.

In the present meta-analysis, we examined the effect of cognitive training on the Executive Functions (EFs) of preschool children (age range: 3–6 years). We selected a final set of 32 studies from 27 papers with a total sample of 123 effect sizes. We found an overall effect of cognitive training for improving EF (g = 0.352; k = 123; p < 0.001), without significant difference between near and far transfer effects on executive domains. No significant additional outcome effects were found for behavioral- and learning-related outcomes. Cognitive training programs for preschoolers are significantly more effective for developmentally at-risk children (ADHD or low socio-economic status) than for children with typical development and without risks. Other significant moderators were: computerized vs. non-computerized training, individual vs. group sessions, and length of training. The number of sessions was not a significant moderator. This is the first demonstration of cognitive training for transfer effects among different executive processes. We discuss this result in relationship to the lower level of modularization of EFs in younger children. Protocol Registration: PROSPERO (CRD42019124127). Available online at: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42019124127.

Time processing difficulties are associated with developmental disorders. Questionnaires for assessing children's sense of time are available from primary school, but we lack valid proxy-report tools for younger children, who are not able to complete self-reports. This study aimed to assess the criterion validity of a questionnaire investigating preschoolers’ sense of time from the points of view of their parents and teachers. One hundred seventy preschoolers were included in the sample. Their parents and teachers completed the Sense of Time Questionnaire, and the children were administered time reproduction and time discrimination tasks, both concurrently and 7 months later. The assessment of preschoolers’ sense of time reported by teachers, but not by parents, predicted the children's time processing skills both concurrently and longitudinally. The teacher version of the Sense of Time Questionnaire constitutes a valid instrument for assessing and predicting preschoolers’ time processing skills and can be used for clinical and research purposes. Statement of contribution: What is already known on this subject? Time processing difficulties are associated with developmental disorders such as ADHD and dyscalculia. Early assessment of time processing skills is important for clinical (e.g., screening) and research purposes. We do not have valid questionnaires for assessing sense of time in young children. What the present study adds? The sense of time ability reported by teachers predicts preschoolers’ time processing skills. The sense of time ability reported by parents does not predicts preschoolers’ time processing skills. The Sense of Time Questionnaire is a valid instrument for investigating time processing skills of 4–6 aged children.

La valutazione multidimensionale dell’autostima in età evolutiva può rivelarsi molto utile in ambito di ricerca e ha importanti implicazioni nella pratica clinica. Il questionario Cosa penso di me è uno strumento ampiamente utilizzato nella letteratura internazionale che prende in esame quattro sottodimensioni dell’autostima generale: l’autostima scolastica, corporea, familiare, interpersonale. Lo studio presentato si pone l’obiettivo di illustrare le caratteristiche psicometriche e la taratura della versione italiana dello strumento e di indagare se fattori quali l’età, il sesso e le variabili sociodemografiche familiari abbiano un effetto sulle diverse sottodimensioni dell’autostima. Il presente studio trasversale ha coinvolto un campione di 1004 bambini e ragazzi dagli 8 ai 20 anni (età media 12,71 ± 3,13, maschi 49,3%). Il questionario Cosa Penso di me ha mostrato delle buone proprietà psicometriche (analisi fattoriale e consistenza interna). I maschi hanno riportato livelli di autostima generale e corporea più elevati delle femmine. I bambini della scuola primaria presentano punteggi più alti rispetto agli studenti di età maggiore su tutte le dimensioni prese in esame, eccetto per l’autostima interpersonale., The multidimensional assessment of self-esteem in childhood and adolescence proves to be very useful in the research field and has important implications in clinical practice. The Five-Scale Test of Self-Esteem for Children questionnaire is widely used in international research, examining four sub-dimensions of general self-esteem: academic, body, family, and social self-esteem. This study aims to illustrate the psychometric characteristics and the calibration of the Italian version of the questionnaire and to investigate whether factors such as age, gender and socio-demographic family variables have an effect on the sub-dimensions of self-esteem. The present cross-sectional study involved a sample of 1004 children and adolescents ranging from 8 to 20 years of age (mean age 12.71 ± 3.13, males 49.3%). The Five-Scale Test of Self-Esteem for Children questionnaire showed good psychometric properties (factorial analysis and internal consistency). Males reported higher levels of general and body self-esteem than females. Primary school children scored higher than older students on every dimension, except for social self-esteem. Academic self-esteem is the dimension most affected by socio-demographic variables.

Background: Children's understanding of symbolic (e.g., Arabic digits) and non-symbolic (e.g., sets of dots) magnitudes plays a key role in their mathematics achievement, but only a few studies directly compared the effects of symbolic and non-symbolic interventions on mathematical abilities. Aims: This longitudinal study compared the impact of symbolic and non-symbolic trainings in a group of preschoolers at risk of developing difficulties in mathematics (RM), analyzing their post-intervention performance both in early math skills (last preschool year) and in mathematics achievement in 1st grade. Methods: Eighty-nine RM children and 66 typically developing controls were selected from among 604 preschoolers. RM children were assigned to three intervention conditions: no intervention, symbolic or non-symbolic intervention. Results: Results showed specific effects on tasks related to the training (e.g., effects of symbolic training on symbolic tasks) and some effects of generalization (e.g., effects of symbolic training on non-symbolic tasks). In 1st grade, children attending the symbolic intervention showed a mathematics achievement profile similar to that of typically developing peers. Conclusions: These results suggest the importance of training the symbolic processing of numbers at preschool age, allowing at risk children to catch up with their peers before entering formal schooling.

Background: Children with dyslexia often show second-language reading and writing difficulties, but the cognitive mechanisms connected to this impairment need to be clarified. Aims: The present study examined the neuropsychological mechanisms underlying learning English as a foreign language in 4th- to the 8th-grade Italian students showing reading difficulties (RD) or typical development (TD). For this purpose, screening involving 901 students was carried out to select children with RD. Sample: Ninety students with RD were compared with 90 typically developing (TD) children matched for non-verbal IQ, grade, and gender. Methods: The two groups were compared on different measures to understand the relationships between reading skills in their mother tongue and in English as a second-language (L2). Subsequently, their phonological and memory skills were investigated to understand the potential role of these variables in learning L2 English. Results: Students with RD obtained worse results than TD students for phonological awareness and working memory, which are both crucial to L2 learning. Conclusions: The results suggest that memory mainly influences accuracy in English writing and, together with phonological skills, plays an important role in reading accuracy. Socio-economic status also plays an important role in L2 learning.

Background & Aims: Portosystemic encephalopathy (PSE) is a major complication of trans-jugular intrahepatic porto-systemic shunt (TIPS) placement. Most devices are self-expandable polytetrafluoroethylene-covered stent grafts (PTFE-SGs) that are dilated to their nominal diameter (8 or 10 mm). We investigated whether PTFE-SGs dilated to a smaller caliber (under-dilated TIPS) reduce PSE yet maintain clinical and hemodynamic efficacy. We also studied whether under-dilated TIPS self-expand to nominal diameter over time. Methods: We performed a prospective, non-randomized study of 42 unselected patients with cirrhosis who received under-dilated TIPS (7 and 6 mm) and 53 patients who received PTFE-SGs of 8 mm or more (controls) at referral centers in Italy. After completion of this study, dilation to 6 mm became the standard and 47 patients were included in a validation study. All patients were followed for 6 months; Doppler ultrasonography was performed 2 weeks and 3 months after TIPS placement and every 6 months thereafter. Stability of PTFE-SG diameter was evaluated by computed tomography analysis of 226 patients with cirrhosis whose stent grafts increased to 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 mm. The primary outcomes were incidence of at least 1 episode of PSE grade 2 or higher during follow up, incidence of recurrent variceal hemorrhage or ascites, incidence of shunt dysfunction requiring TIPS recanalization, and reduction in porto-caval pressure gradient. Results: PSE developed in a significantly lower proportion of patients with under-dilated TIPS (27%) than controls (54%) during the first year after the procedure (P =.015), but the proportions of patients with recurrent variceal hemorrhage or ascites did not differ significantly between groups. No TIPS occlusions were observed. These results were confirmed in the validation cohort. In an analysis of self-expansion of stent grafts, during a mean follow-up period of 252 days after placement, none of the PTFE-SGs self-expanded to t

In the original article, there was an error because we wrongly coded four studies (Gade et al., 2017) as including a computerized training, which was not correct. In the Abstract, we stated that the condition computerized vs. non-computerized versions of the training was significant, but this was not the case. Moreover, in Table 1, we deleted “computerized” in the four studies published by Gade et al. (2017) and on Table 3, we corrected the values related to “computerized vs. non-computerized trainings”. Supplementary Data Sheet 2 has been corrected and updated. Corrections have also been made to Table 1, Table 3, as well as the following paragraphs indicated below.

In the original article, there was an error because we wrongly coded four studies (Gade et al., 2017) as including a computerized training, which was not correct. In the Abstract, we stated that the condition computerized vs. non-computerized versions of the training was significant, but this was not the case. Moreover, in Table 1, we deleted “computerized” in the four studies published by Gade et al. (2017) and on Table 3, we corrected the values related to “computerized vs. non-computerized trainings”. Supplementary Data Sheet 2 has been corrected and updated. Corrections have also been made to Table 1, Table 3, as well as the following paragraphs indicated below.

Recenti ricerche evidenziano un’associazione tra parenting e sviluppo delle funzioni esecutive (FE) del bambino in età prescolare. Per quanto riguarda l’aspetto socio-emozionale del parenting, sembra che caregivers responsivi e mind-minded esercitino una significativa influenza positiva, mentre caregivers controllanti, ostili e rifiutanti esercitano, al contrario, un’influenza negativa. Per quanto riguarda l’aspetto cognitivo del parenting, sembra che stimolazione e supporto dell’autonomia, in particolare buone capacità di scaffolding, siano tra le variabili più influenti. Da studi recenti inoltre risulta che l’associazione tra parenting e sviluppo delle FE è mediata dalle abilità linguistiche del bambino e moderata da differenze individuali legate al funzionamento dell’asse HPA e al temperamento. Infine, il parenting è un target in diversi modelli di intervento di recente proposta, come il self regulation approach.

In the past decade, converging evidence has suggested that motor impairment is one of the most consistent markers, alongside sociocommunicative difficulties, for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Indeed, widespread anomalies of movement have been described in the ASD context. These motor abnormalities could have critical implications for subsequent cognitive and social development. Nevertheless, this area of development is particularly underexamined in the autism-related context, and early intervention programs commonly focus on the core symptoms of the condition. In the present work, we review and discuss the findings from recent studies that investigated the effect of interventions regarding fundamental motor skills in autistic children. Although the limited nature of the literature prevents researchers from drawing definitive conclusions, the results from the studies discussed here demonstrated potentially significant improvements in the motor abilities of autistic children after the interventions. Only a subset of the reviewed studies explored possible changes in the sociocommunicative domain after the motor skills improvements, and they had not concordant, although promising, conclusions. Overall, in consideration of the well-documented motor impairment people with the condition, the present findings highlight the importance of including motor skills training within the rehabilitation programs designed for autistic children. Furthermore, this narrative review encourages future interventional trials to consider motor skills as a possible target for reducing activity limitations and participation restrictions of autistic children.

The present research has allowed us to analyze the Executive Functions (EF) on a sample of 110 youngsters aged between 8 and 13 who present characteristic features of ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), SLD (Specific Learning Disorder), ODD (Oppositional- Defiant Disorder) and 77 young participants with typical development. A new battery of tests was administered for the assessment of the Executive Functions and a questionnaire filled out by teachers and parents. The results allowed to highlight specific deficits in the three clinical groups, both in the cool (cognitive) and hot (emotional-motivational) EF; moreover, the results obtained with the tests are moderately correlated with those obtained through questionnaires.