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Anthropogenic activities associated with increasing influx of people in cities globally and the capital city of Norway, Oslo, has expansively fragment and decreased urban green space, reducing the connectivity between the remaining remnant green patches. Consequently, this contributes to decreasing the biodiversity and increasing the spread of invasive species in Oslo and cities worldwide. Oslo has begun the establishment of native meadow patches on and off green roofs as steppingstone to mitigate anthropogenic encroachment in Oslo, and hence, improve biodiversity in the city. However, native meadow assemblages on small patches, such as roofs are affected by multiple negative factors, for instance, extreme environmental conditions and production of high volumes of minerals, which causes intensive drought conditions. To mitigate these effects and minimise the creation of ecological traps and sinks, we conducted an experimental field test to investigate methods for creating native meadows on green roofs in an urban setting (case study; Oslo city Norway). An exact number of native meadow plant seeds was sown in various plots, the effect of three different soil treatments (100% topsoil(organic soil from Oslo compost), 50% topsoil and 50% sand, 95% topsoil and 5% silt), and two substrate depths (18 cm and 30 cm) were tested, on the sprouting success and biomass of sown meadow species, colonizers, and sprouting number of invasive species. The sprouts and biomass of sown species appeared higher for 30 versus 18 cm for all soil types, but the pattern was not statically significant. Averagely, topsoil and 30 cm depth had the highest number of sprouts and dry weight of sown species and topsoil mixed with sand and 18 cm depth had the lowest number of sprouts and dry weight. Colonizing species (those that appeared but we did not sow in ourselves) exhibited a significantly lower number of sprouts in 30 versus 18 cm for all soil types, with highest in topsoil and lowest in topsoil mixed with silt. The biomass of colonizing species revealed similar results with highest in 18 cm substrate depth of topsoil and lowest in 30 cm depth of topsoil mixed with sand. The number of sprouts of invasive species appeared to be higher in 30 compared to 18 cm for topsoil and topsoil mixed with silt and decreased in 30 versus 18 cm for topsoil mixed with sand, though the patterns were not statically significant. The biomass of invasive species showed a higher amount in 30 compared to 18 cm, but lower for topsoil mixed with sand and the patterns was also not statically significant. There was no statistically significant interaction between substrate depth and soil treatments on the sprout and biomass of all meadow species. Meaning that both substrate depth and soil treatment influenced the sprouts and biomass of these species in our experiment independently. These results indicate that soil quality was the main driver for the total number of sprouts and biomass combined for all species registered in this field experiment. Meanwhile, substrate depth has little role to play in determining the number of sprouts and biomass of sown meadow species and invasive species yet influenced the colonization of our site. Additional factors such as surrounding green space, shading from trees, seed banks, phenological differences between species, seed dispersal by birds, insects, and wind, could be potential sources of colonization, influencing sprouting, growth, and ultimately, gene flow and genetic rescue in our experiment. M-ECOL

Fish traps are widely used in Norwegian fjords, especially those designed for monitoring salmonid populations in the marine environment, although many other marine fish species are also captured. The composition and spatio-temporal variations of fish species captured by fish traps were monitored in five different coastal locations throughout the Romsdalsfjord region, Western Norway, from May to August during the three consecutive years (2011–2013). Twenty-three fish species were captured by traps in coastal waters, both resident and migratory fishes. The most common fish and with greater catchability were saithe (Pollachis virens) and sea trout (Salmo trutta), followed by cod (Gadus morhua), pollack (P. pollachius), herring (Clupea harengus) and mackerels (Trachurus trachurus and Scomber scombrus). However, the captured assemblage presented great spatial and seasonal variations, in terms of mean daily catch, probably associated with hydrographical conditions and migrational patterns. Information obtained in this study will help us to better understand the compositions and dynamic of coastal fish populations inhabiting Norwegian coastal waters. In addition, traps are highly recommended as a management tool for fish research (e.g. fish-tagging experiments, mark and recapture) and conservation purposes (coastal use and fisheries studies). The Norwegian Research Council (Project No. 221404), the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (Strategic Institute Programme, Project No. 160022/F40), the Institute of Marine Research, the fish farmers in the Romsdalsfjord area, Møre and Romsdal County Community (Marine Environmental and Value Creation Fund), the County Governor of Møre and Romsdal, the Norwegian Food Safety Authority and the NILS Science and Sustainability program (ES07–EEA Grants; ABEL-IM-2014A) funded this project.

Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0 The holotype male of a nominal species described from Italy, Calliphora bezzii Zumpt, 1956, including a microscope slide of its terminalia, was examined. The holotype is shown to belong to the Nearctic taxon Calliphora latifrons Hough, 1899. Thus, Calliphora bezzii is a junior synonym of C. latifrons, syn. nov.

This study examined the short and long term effects of long exposure to sub lethal temperatures on Cimex lectularius. Adult bed bugs and fifth instar nymphs were exposed to sub lethal temperatures, 34°C, 36°C and 38°C for 14 and 21 days with both constant and disrupted exposure. The treatments with constant exposures had lowest survival compared to the disrupted treatments. The two treatments with highest temperature had the lowest survival rate within the constant exposure treatments. Some mortality did occur in the 34°C as well. The treatments with disrupted exposure did not have as high mortality like the constant exposure treatments. Feeding abilities was reduced in the constant exposure treatments, but not in the disrupted treatments. Egg production and hatching success was reduced in both constant and disrupted exposures. The highest treatment temperatures had lowest egg production and reduced hatching success. After the eight week recovery period, egg production and hatching success had increased in both the constant and in the disrupted exposure treatments. Moulting abilities of the offspring’s produced after thermal stress was reduced in both constant and disrupted treatments. The higher the temperature exposure was, the more it effected development. Although sub lethal heat treatment did not induce high mortality immediately, the long term effects that the long exposure caused can be detrimental for the development and growth of the surviving population in the future. Sub lethal heat treatment does affect bed bug if exposure is long enough. This method is not a stand-alone solution against bed bugs, but could be an efficient method if used in combination with IPM. Dette studiet undersøkte korttids og langtids effekter av forlenget eksponering av subletale temperaturer med både konstant og avbrutte eksponeringer på Cimec lectularius. Voksne veggdyr og femte stadium nymfer ble eksponert for subletale temperaturer, 34 °C, 36 °C og 38 °C, i 14 og 21 dager med både konstant og avbrutte eksponeringer. Behandlingene med konstant eksponering hadde lavest overlevelse i forhold til behandlingene med avbrutte eksponeringer. Behandlingene utsatt for de to høyeste temperaturene med konstant eksponering hadde lavest overlevelse. Noe dødelighet forekom også i 34 °C behandlingene. Behandlingene med avbrutte eksponeringer hadde ikke like store effekter med dødelighet som i de med konstant eksponering. Fôrings evner ble svært redusert etter konstant eksponering, men ikke i behandlingene med avbrutt eksponering. Egg produksjon og klekkesuksess var redusert i behandlinger med både konstant og avbrutte eksponeringer. Behandlingene med høyest temperatur eksponering hadde lavest eggproduksjon og klekke suksess. Etter den åtte uker lange restitusjons perioden, hadde eggproduksjon og klekkesuksess økt betraktelig i både konstant og avbrutte eksponerings behandlingene. Avkommene som ble produsert etter behandlings perioden, hadde reduserte evner til å skifte hud og utvikle seg til neste stadium i både konstant og i avbrutte behandlings typene. Jo høyere temperatur eksponeringen var, jo mer var evnene til å utvikle seg redusert. Selv om subletal varme behandling ikke gir umiddelbare effekter, kan effektene som vedvarer påvirke utviklingen og populasjonsveksten til de overlevede individene negativt. Dette kan svekke populasjonen og minske sjansene for ny spredning og vil hindre fremtidig vekst. Subletal varmebehandling har en effekt på veggdyr, så lenge eksponerings tid er lang nok. Denne metoden er ikke en løsning som burde brukes aleine, men kan være effektiv hvis den brukes i kombinasjon med IPM. M-ECOL

Alvamaja chlorometallica gen. n., sp. n. is described from the southern part of Serbia. It has a perplexing combination of characters for an oestroid fly: green metallic body colour with silvery pollinosity; absence of swollen subscutellum; a small metathoracic spiracle without lappets, latter represented by small anterior and posterior fringes; prealar seta long and strong, close to suture and longer than any of the notopleural setae; postalar wall with 1–3 setae; an elongate lower calypter, with an inner edge diverging from the long axis of the fly and bare on upper surface; cell r4+5 of wing stalked, stalk moderately long; bend of vein M angulated with a small appendix, and the second costal sector bare below. Its systematic position among the oestroid flies is discussed. A phylogenetic analysis performed with NONA suggests that it belongs in the Rhinophoridae. A new genus is created for it since it does not fit into any of the currently recognised genera of Rhinophoridae.

Several hundred million birds are killed on an annual basis worldwide due to collisions with vehicles. While this is well documented, less data exists on specific factors affecting the number of roadkills. I examined roadkill patterns while driving a car during a 44-month period (617 days, twice daily) along a 25 km stretch of road in the middle of Norway. In total, 121 roadkills were detected during that period. I used information on bodymass, speed limit, vegetation in the vicinity, flight distance, abundance of birds in the surrounding environment and number of birds sitting on the road in order to elucidate their effects on the number of roadkills and susceptibility to become a roadkill for 30 different bird species/groups of species. Roadkill numbers were highest in summer, and at certain parts of the road the mortality rate was much higher than in others. Heavier birds flew away from the approaching car at a longer distance than smaller birds, but they still had a relatively high mortality rate. Birds known to search for food on roads were more likely than other birds to become roadkill. Birds observed on the road explained a significant amount of the variation in roadkills between the species, in contrast to the abundance of birds in the surroundings. Fewer birds than expected were found where the speed limit was highest, and roadkilled birds were visible for a longer period when their body mass was higher.

As global warming advances, there is a growing concern about the impact of extreme weather events on ecosystems. In the Arctic, more frequent unseasonal warm spells and rain-on- snow events in winter cause changes in snow-pack properties, including ground icing. Such extreme weather events are known to have severe effects across trophic levels, for instance, causing die-offs of large herbivores. However, the extent to which individuals and populations are able to buffer such events through behavioral plasticity is poorly understood. Here, we analyze responses in space use to rain-on- snow and icing events, and their fitness correlates, in wild reindeer in high-Arctic Svalbard. Range displacement among GPS-collared females occurred mainly in icy winters to areas with less ice, lower over-winter body mass loss, lower mortality rate, and higher subsequent fecundity, than the departure area. Our study provides rare empirical evidence that mammals may buffer negative effects of climate change and extreme weather events by adjusting behavior in highly stochastic environments. Under global warming, behavioral buffering may be important for the long-term population persistence in mobile species with long generation time and therefore limited ability for rapid evolutionary adaptation. Arctic; climate; GPS; ice; ideal-free distribution; migration; movement; Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus; space use; Svalbard; Svalbard reindeer; time-to-event analysis. Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0)

To remotely monitor vegetation at temporal and spatial resolutions unobtainable with satellite-based systems, near remote sensing systems must be employed. To this extent we used Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NDVI sensors and normal digital cameras to monitor the greenness of six different but common and widespread High Arctic plant species/groups (graminoid/Salix polaris; Cassiope tetragona; Luzula spp.; Dryas octopetala/S. polaris; C. tetragona/D. octopetala; graminoid/bryophyte) during an entire growing season in central Svalbard. Of the three greenness indices (2G_RBi, Channel G% and GRVI) derived from digital camera images, only GRVI showed significant correlations with NDVI in all vegetation types. The GRVI (Green-Red Vegetation Index) is calculated as (GDN 􀀀��������� RDN)/(GDN + RDN) where GDN is Green digital number and RDN is Red digital number. Both NDVI and GRVI successfully recorded timings of the green-up and plant growth periods and senescence in all six plant species/groups. Some differences in phenology between plant species/groups occurred: the mid-season growing period reached a sharp peak in NDVI and GRVI values where graminoids were present, but a prolonged period of higher values occurred with the other plant species/groups. Unlike the other plant species/groups, C. tetragona experienced increased NDVI and GRVI values towards the end of the season. NDVI measured with active and passive sensors were strongly correlated (r2 > 0.70) for the same plant species/groups. Although NDVI recorded by the active sensor was consistently lower than that of the passive sensor for the same plant species/groups, differences were small and likely due to the differing light sources used. Thus, it is evident that GRVI and NDVI measured with active and passive sensors captured similar vegetation attributes of High Arctic plants. Hence, inexpensive digital cameras can be used with passive and active NDVI devices to establish a near remote sensing network for monitoring changing vegetation dynamics in the High Arctic. NDVI; greenness index; RGB camera; vegetation; phenology; active sensor; passive sensor; Svalbard

This is the published version of the article. Published source: http://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.1837. According to some treatises, arctic and alpine sub-biomes are ecologically similar, whereas others find them highly dissimilar. Most peculiarly, large areas of northern tundra highlands fall outside of the two recent subdivisions of the tundra biome. We seek an ecologically natural resolution to this long-standing and far-reaching problem. We studied broad-scale patterns in climate and vegetation along the gradient from Siberian tundra via northernmost Fennoscandia to the alpine habitats of European middle-latitude mountains, as well as explored those patterns within Fennoscandian tundra based on climate–vegetation patterns obtained from a fine-scale vegetation map. Our analyses reveal that ecologically meaningful January–February snow and thermal conditions differ between different types of tundra. High precipitation and mild winter temperatures prevail on middle-latitude mountains, low precipitation and usually cold winters prevail on high-latitude tundra, and Scandinavian mountains show intermediate conditions. Similarly, heath-like plant communities differ clearly between middle latitude mountains (alpine) and high-latitude tundra vegetation, including its altitudinal extension on Scandinavian mountains. Conversely, high abundance of snowbeds and large differences in the composition of dwarf shrub heaths distinguish the Scandinavian mountain tundra from its counterparts in Russia and the north Fennoscandian inland. The European tundra areas fall into three ecologically rather homogeneous categories: the arctic tundra, the oroarctic tundra of northern heights and mountains, and the genuinely alpine tundra of middlelatitude mountains. Attempts to divide the tundra into two sub-biomes have resulted in major discrepancies and confusions, as the oroarctic areas are included in the arctic tundra in some biogeographic maps and in the alpine tundra in others. Our analyses based on climate and vegetation criteria thus seem to resolve the long-standing biome delimitation problem, help in consistent characterization of research sites, and create a basis for further biogeographic and ecological research in global tundra environments.

The recently launched Brazilian “forest certificates” market is expected to reduce environmental compliance costs for landowners through an offset mechanism, after a long history of conservation laws based in command-and-control and strict rules. In this paper we assessed potential costs and evaluated the cost-effectiveness of the instrument when introducing to this market constraints that aim to address conservation objectives more specifically. Using the conservation planning software Marxan with Zones we simulated different scopes for the “forest certificates” market, and compared their cost-effectiveness with that of existing command-and-control (C&C), i.e. compliance to the Legal Reserve on own property, in the state of Sao Paulo. The simulations showed a clear potential of the constrained “forest certificates” market to improve conservation effectiveness and increase cost-effectiveness on allocation of Legal Reserves. Although the inclusion of an additional constraint of targeting the BIOTA Conservation Priority Areas doubled the cost (+95%) compared with a “free trade” scenario constrained only by biome, this option was still 50% less costly than the baseline scenario of compliance with Legal Reserve at the property.

The aim of this study was to investigate species related differences in soil carbon and nitrogen concentration, pH and condensed tannin content in topsoil’s in Norway spruce (Picea abies) European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests. Samples were collected in two Norway spruce sites and one old-growth European beech forest in South-Eastern Norway. Research on spatial distribution and differences in soil properties in beech and spruce has been studied in the temperate zone. However, no comparative studies have investigated differences in secondary compounds in topsoil’s between European beech and Norway spruce forests. This might be of importance as larger tannin structures decompose slower, and are believed to be able to remain in the soil over time and potentially add to the stable carbon pool found in boreal forest soils. Also, in the literary studies done in conjunction with this thesis, no research showing differences in topsoil content of condensed tannins between spruce and beech where to be found. Topsoil samples were collected in old-growth beech forest, a Norway spruce forest growing in an area previously dominated by beech, and in a younger primary Norway spruce forest. The samples were analysed for carbon and nitrogen concentration, C/N ratio, pH and total condensed tannin content. Topsoil samples were collected at spatial intervals of 2 meters, with samples being taken up to 10 meters in all cardinal directions from a centre point. The results suggest that a change from spruce to beech forest will not induce significant changes to the concentrations and distribution of the measured soil properties. Few significant differences in the measured variables were found between the forest sites, and the highest variation was found within forest sites. This indicates that other factors than dominating tree species are more influential for small-scale spatial variations in soil properties. However, the results for spatial distribution of the measured variables does not constitute evidence that the parameters for soil properties would not show temporal variation with a shift towards more beech forest. To conclude further on this, more sampling sites and a larger number of samples would have to be included in the model. M-BIOL

There is a pressing need to integrate large carnivore species into multi-use landscapes outside protected areas. However, an unclear understanding of coexistence hinders the realization of this goal. Here, we provide a comprehensive conceptualization of coexistence in which mutual adaptations by both large carnivores and humans have a central role.

Myndighetene ønsker at bestandsmålet for jerv skal nås gjennom lisensjakt, da dette antas å være mer konfliktdempende enn andre former for uttak. Imidlertid vet man i dag at det har vært lite interesse for jervejakt og manglende kvotefylling i mange deler av landet. Jakta har dermed vært lite effektiv og må derfor suppleres med mer konfliktskapende metoder, som for eksempel hiuttak. Dette forsterker behovet for mer kunnskap fra de som faktisk driver med jervejakt. I denne studien har jeg derfor valgt å undersøke hvordan jegere med praktisk erfaring fra jervejakt ser på denne jakta og rammene rundt den. Jeg har blant annet valgt å se nærmere på hvilke faktorer jegerne mener er til hinder og gagn for en mer effektivt jakt på jerv, hva de mener de kan påvirke motivasjonen for å delta i jakta og hvordan de mener at disse utfordringene kan løses på en best mulig måte. Denne studien er basert på en kvalitativ undersøkelsesmetode med bruk av semistrukturerte dybdeintervjuer av jervejegere i Østlandsområdet, som har varierende grad av erfaring fra jakt på dette dyret. Jeg fant at det var stor grad av mistillit til en rekke ulike forvaltningsbeslutninger. De fleste informantene var spesielt negative til det de mente var for mye regler i tilknytning til praktisk jaktutøvelse ved lisensfellingen. De var også negative til dagens ressursbruk, forskjellsbehandling og manglende samarbeid. Ressursbruken mente flere i hovedsak kom av en overdreven overvåkingsaktivitet i forbindelse med de presise bestandsmålene, mens forskjellsbehandlingen i hovedsak var knyttet til bruken av soneforvaltning og det de anså som varierende politiske beslutninger i rovviltnemndene. De etterspurte derfor mer fagkunnskap på dette forvaltningsnivået. Det manglende samarbeidet mente de gjorde seg spesielt gjeldene mellom dem selv og forvaltningen, mellom regionale rovviltregioner og mellom Norge og Sverige. Jegerne kom med forslag til en rekke ulike løsninger på dagens problemer, og mente at dagens regelverk knyttet til den praktiske jaktutøvelsen trengte både en forenkling og noen tillegg for å bli mest mulig effektiv. Med bakgrunn i funnene fra denne studien er det tydelig at noe burde gjøres med den manglende tilliten til enkelte aspekter ved dagens rammeverk for jervejakt. Videre forskning og enkelte endringer i dagens forvaltningspraksis vil trolig være en fordel for myndighetene, for å sikre et videre samarbeid med jegerstanden og at man på den måten kan oppnå et mer effektivt uttak i framtida. Jegerne er ikke motivert av solidaritet med beitenæringa, og myndighetene må derfor forholde seg til dem først og fremst som jegere, og ikke forvente at de skal se på jervejakta som noe de gjør som en slags «borgerplikt». Myndighetene må altså forholde seg til jegerne på deres premisser. The government strives for an achievement of the set population goals for wolverine to be reached through licensed hunting as this is assumed to lead to less conflict than other forms of population reduction. However, there has been little engagement for wolverine hunting, and the licensed hunting therefore has to be augmented with more high-conflict measures, such as killing cubs in the den. This strengthens the need for more knowledge from the current wolverine hunters. In this study I have therefore chosen to examine how hunters with practical experience from wolverine hunting actually view this type of hunting and the framework for the hunt. I have, amongst other things, chosen to delve into which factors the hunters perceive as hinders and benefits for a more efficient wolverine hunt, what they perceive as motivational factors for hunting and how they believe these challenges can be resolved in the best possible way. This study is based on a qualitative investigation method with the use of semi-structured indepth interviews of wolverine hunters in Eastern Norway. The hunters had a varying degree of hunting experience on wolverine. My findings suggested a high degree of mistrust to many management decisions. Most of the informants were especially negative to what they perceived as “too many rules” in connection with the practical hunting execution during the licensed hunt. They were also negative to the current resource use, differential treatment, and lack of cooperation. The resource use, most hunters perceived as an excessive monitoring activity in connection with the precise set population goals, while the differential treatment was mainly connected to the use of zone management, and what they perceived as variable political decisions in the regional Large Carnivore Boards. The hunters requested more scientific knowledge in these regional Boards. The lack of cooperation was especially pointed out between themselves and the management, between the regional Large Carnivore Boards, and between Norway and Sweden. The hunters suggested a number of different measures to solve the current challenges, and believed that the current rules connected to the practical hunt needed both a simplification and some amendments to be more effective. Based on these findings it is clear that something needs to be done with the lack of trust to some aspects with today’s framework for wolverine hunting. Further research, and some changes in the current management practice will probably be beneficial for the government to assure a continuing cooperation with hunters, and because in this way it is possible to achieve a more efficient population reduction in the future. The hunters are not motivated by solidarity with the livestock industry, and the government therefore has to relate to them as hunters first of all, and not expect them to view the wolverine hunt as a sort of “civic duty”. In conclusion, the government needs to relate to the hunters on their terms. M-NF

The autumnal moth (Epirrita autumnata) is a cyclically outbreaking forest Lepidoptera with circumpolar distribution and substantial impact on Northern ecosystems. We have isolated 21 microsatellites from the species to facilitate population genetic studies of population cycles, outbreaks, and crashes. First, PCR primers and PCR conditions were developed to amplify 19 trinucleotide loci and two tetranucleotide loci in six multiplex PCR approaches and then analyzed for species specificity, sensitivity and precision. Twelve of the loci showed simple tandem repeat array structures while nine loci showed imperfect repeat structures, and repeat numbers varied in our material between six and 15. The application in population genetics for all the 21 microsatellites were further validated in 48 autumnal moths sampled from Northern Norway, and allelic variation was detected in 19 loci. The detected numbers of alleles per locus ranged from two to 13, and the observed and expected heterozygosities varied from 0.04 to 0.69 and 0.04 to 0.79, respectively. Evidence for linkage disequilibrium was found for six loci as well as indication of one null allele. We find that these novel microsatellites and their multiplex-PCR assays are suitable for further research on fine- and large-scale population-genetic studies of Epirrita autumnata. tri- and tetranucleotide microsatellites; multiplex PCR; Lepidoptera; population genetics

Perennial plants, such as Norway Spruce and Subalpine Fir synchronize their growth and dormancy to different environmental cues, mainly photoperiod, temperature and light quality. In several plant species the UV-B radiation is known to induce changes in plant morphology, such as a decrease in stem elongation, thicker leaves, and shorter petioles. Therefor, the effect of UV-B and temperature on photoperiodic control is an economically and ecologically important question. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of the interaction between UV-B and day length on growth and winter bud development in Norway Spruce and Subalpine Fir. Earlier experiments indicate that temperature can modify the effects of day length, however no correlation between UV-B radiation and temperature has been studied under controlled conditions. Therefore the modifying responses to UV-B and day length by temperature were of interest in this present study, such as bud development, elongation growth and the depth of dormancy in Norway Spruce and Subalpine Fir. Previously studies in Norway Spruce have also discovered an up regulation of the gene FTL2 during short day. This up regulation leads to growth cessation, and later winter bud formation, and studied . The effects of UV-B on the up regulation of FTL2 were therefore investigated in Norway Spruce. In conclusion, no consistent effects of UV-B or temperature were discovered in this study on elongation growth in short day (SD) either Norway Spruce or Subalpine Fir. However. UV-B exposure in higher temperatures during SD delayed the bud set in both Norway Spruce and Subalpine Fir. In Subalpine Fir, seedlings exposed to higher temperatures during bud set had a delayed bud burst, i. e a deeper dormancy state. In Norway Spruce a three-way correlation effect was discovered where UV-B in higher temperatures during SD delayed the bud burst. The FTL2 gene was up regulated during SD in Norway Spruce, but there was no significant effect of UV-B on its expression. Finally, more studies on the effects of UV-B and temperature are necessary in both Subalpine Fir and Norway Spruce. Flerårige planter, slik som Norsk gran og Fjelledelgran synkroniserer deres vekst og vinterhvile til ulike signaler i naturen, hovedsakelig daglengde, temperatur og lyskvalitet. UV-B er kjent for å indusere endringer i plantens morfologi, for eksempel reduksjon i strekningsvekst, tykke blader og kortere petioler. Derfor er effekten av UV -B og temperatur på kontroll av fotoperiode et økonomisk og økologisk viktig spørsmål. Målet med dette studiet var å undersøke effekten av samspillet mellom UV -B og daglengde på vekst og knopputvikling i norsk gran og fjelledelgran. Tidligere forsøk har vist at temperatur kan endre effekten av daglengde, men ingen sammenheng mellom UV -B -stråling og temperatur har imidlertidig blitt undersøkt under kontrollerte forhold. Derfor var de modifiserende reaksjoner på UV - B og daglengde ved temperatur av interesse i dette studiet, for eksempel knopputvikling , lengdevekst og dybden av vinterhvile i norsk gran og fjelledelgran. Tidligere forsøk i norsk gran har også oppdaget en oppregulering av genet FTL2 under eksponering av kort dag . Denne oppreguleringen fører til veksthemning, og en forsinkelse i dannelsen av vinterknopp. Effektene av UV -B på oppregulering av FTL2 ble derfor undersøkt i norsk gran. Til konklusjon ble ingen konsistente effekter av UV -B eller temperatur oppdaget i denne studien i forhold til lengdevekst i kort dag (KD), verken i norsk gran eller fjelledelgran. Imidlertidig førte eksponering av UV -B i høyere temperaturer under KD til en forsinket knopputvikling i både norsk gran og fjelledelgran. I fjelledelgranen hadde frøplanter som var utsatt for høyere temperaturer under knoppdannelse, en forsinket knoppbrytning, dvs en dypere dvale. I norsk gran ble en en treveiskorrelasjon oppdaget, hvor effekten av UV -B i høyere temperaturer i SD forsinket knoppbrytningen . FTL2-genet ble oppregulert i SD i norsk gran, men det var ingen signifikant effekt av UV -B på i denne ekspresjonen. Avslutningsvis trengs det flere studier på effekten av UV -B og temperatur er nødvendig både på fjelledelgran og Norge Gran. M-BIOL

Tachina westermanni Wiedemann, 1819 was based on four syntypes, two conspecific calliphorids and two conspecific tachinids. Two existing but contradictory lectotype fixations have resulted in confusion as to the correct application of the specific name westermanni Wiedemann. Evidence is presented showing that the lectotype fixation of Townsend in 1931 is valid and assigns westermanni Wiedemann to the Calliphoridae, with Pericallimyia westermanni as the valid binomen. The valid name for the tachinid taxon becomes Brachelia westermanni Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 and a neotype is designated for it in the interests of nomenclatural stability.

In many seabird studies, single annual proxies of prey abundance have been used to explain variability in breeding performance, but much more important is probably the timing of prey availability relative to the breeding season when energy demand is at a maximum. Until now, intraseasonal variation in prey availability has been difficult to quantify in seabirds. Using a state-of-the-art ocean drift model of larval cod Gadus morhua, an important constituent of the diet of common guillemots Uria aalge in the southwestern Barents Sea, we were able to show clear, short-term correlations between food availability and measurements of the stress hormone corticosterone (CORT) in parental guillemots over a 3-year period (2009–2011). The model allowed the extraction of abundance and size of cod larvae with very high spatial (4 km) and temporal resolutions (1 day) and showed that cod larvae from adjacent northern spawning grounds in Norway were always available near the guillemot breeding colony while those from more distant southerly spawning grounds were less frequent, but larger. The latter arrived in waves whose magnitude and timing, and thus overlap with the guillemot breeding season, varied between years. CORT levels in adult guillemots were lower in birds caught after a week with high frequencies of southern cod larvae. This pattern was restricted to the two years (2009 and 2010) in which southern larvae arrived before the end of the guillemot breeding season. Any such pattern was masked in 2011 by already exceptionally high numbers of cod larvae in the region throughout chick-rearing period. The findings suggest that CORT levels in breeding birds increase when the arrival of southern sizable larvae does not match the period of peak energy requirements during breeding. Common guillemot, CORT, food availability, seabird, Uria aalge © 2015 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Greylag goose populations are steadily increasing in north-western Europe. Although individuals breeding in the Netherlands have been considered mainly sedentary birds, those fromScandinavia or northern Germany fly towards their winter quarters, namely over France as far as Spain. This study aimed to determine the genetic structure of these birds, and to evaluate how goose populations mix. We used mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites from individuals distributed throughout the European Atlantic flyway, from breeding sites in Norway and the Netherlands to stopover and wintering sites in northern and south-western France. The mtDNA marker (CR1 D-Loop, 288 bp sequence, 144 ind.) showed 23 different haplotypes. The genetic distances amongst individuals sampled in Norway, northern France and the Netherlands were low (range 0.012–0.013). Individuals in south-western France showed a slightly higher genetic distance compared to all other sampling areas (ranges 0.018–0.022). The NJ tree does not show evidence of any single clades grouping together all individuals fromthe same geographic area. Besides, individuals from each site are found in different branches. Bayesian clustering procedures on 14 microsatellites (169 individuals) did not detect any geographically distinct cluster, and a high genetic admixture was recorded in all studied areas except for the individuals from the breeding sites in Norway, which were genetically very close. Estimation of migration rates through Bayesian inference confirms the scenario for the current mixing of goose populations. Subjects Biodiversity, Zoology Keywords mtDNA, Microsatellites, Greylag goose, Genetic structure, France and Norway

Political borders dictate how biological diversity is monitored and managed, yet wild animals often move freely between jurisdictions. We quantified bias in brown bear (Ursus arctos) abundance estimates introduced when analytical methods ignore that the same individuals may be accounted for in more than one jurisdiction. A spatially explicit population model revealed that up to 49% of female bears detected in Norway via microsatellite analysis of scat and hair samples have their center of activity in neighboring countries (Finland, Russia, and Sweden). Not accounting for detections of “foreign residents” resulted in abundance estimates that were inflated by as much as 119%. Like man- agement and conservation, monitoring of transboundary wildlife populations should take place at ecologically relevant scales to avoid biased abundance es- timates and a false sense of control. When political realities isolate jurisdictions from their neighbors, spatially explicit analytical approaches can allow local or national programs a glimpse beyond their borders. Jurisdiction; large carnivore management; natural resource policy; noninvasive genetic monitoring; spatially explicit capture-recapture; transboundary wildlife.

Fusarium graminearum is a species of fungal pathogens known to cause Fusarium head blight impacting grain quality and yield of Norwegian wheat. The genetic background of this disease have been studied over the past two decades. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS), also called association mapping, have proven to be powerful tools in identifying the genetic composition of complex traits. In this thesis, markers from the 90K SNP array with phenotypic data for a core collection of 172 MASBASIS spring and winter wheat lines from 2014 and previous years were analysed with the mixed linear model in Tassel correcting for kinship and population structure. STRUCTURE identified 8 subpopulations in MASBASIS differentiated by geographic origin and spring and winter growth habits. A total of 22 031 markers for spring wheat, and 16091 for winter wheat were used to identify significant markers for earliness, plant height, anther extrusion, Fusarium head blight and mycotoxin deoxynivalenol. All traits were discovered to hold significant markers around previously discovered QTL, indicating that genes controlling these traits may be located at positions around the markers of significance. Heritabilities calculated from analyses of variance demonstrated that the percentages of the observed variances resulting from genetics was much lower for FHB than for DON, suggesting a great impact of environmental effects and experimental error, such as weather and scoring, on the rate of disease. The usefulness of using FHB as a trait in genome-wide association mapping, compared to DON, must therefore be individually determined. DON is considered the most important trait due to the yield and quality loss from mycotoxin infected grain, and gave both high heritability and significant markers from the association mapping from this study. From the field trial of 2014, Norwegian breeding lines had relatively low values for DON compared to the susceptible lines, indicating that breeding for Fusarium resistance have been successful. However, compared to the highly resistant source Sumai 3, there is still a long way to go. Further analyses of resistance is recommended to identify the genes underlying traits for resistance and the specific lines carrying these for use in breeding programmes. M-BIOL

Stylonectria norvegica sp. nov. is described from three collections on pyrenomycetous hosts on Quercus, Betula and Alnus in Norway. The fusarium-like asexual state was obtained in culture and the ITS1- 5.8S-ITS2 loci were sequenced. This new species is described and illustrated and its affinities and differences with other species in the genus are discussed. Ascomycota, fungicolous, Hypocreales, ITS, taxonomy.

People’s reactions to large carnivores take many forms, ranging from support and coexistence to resistance and conflict. While these reactions are the outcome of many different factors, in this paper we specifically explore the link between social constructions of landscapes and divergent responses to large carnivore presence. We compare case studies from four different landscapes shared by people and large carnivores, in India and Norway. We use social construction of landscapes as a key concept to explore responses to large carnivores in the context of ecological, economic, social, and cultural changes in these areas. Based on this comparison, we argue that the process of change is complex, with a plurality of responses from the groups affected by it. The response to large carnivore presence is influenced by many different factors, of which the interpretation of change—particularly landscape change—plays a significant role. Keywords: change, social construction, landscape interpretations, large carnivores, human-wildlife interactions, India, Norway

External tagging of fish with electronic tags has been used for decades for a wide range of marine and freshwater species. In the early years of fish telemetry research, it was the most commonly used attachment method, but later internal implants became preferred. Recently, the number of telemetry studies using external tagging has increased, especially with the development of archival tags (data storage tags, DSTs), pop-up satellite archival tags (PSATs) and other environment-sensing tags. Scientific evaluations of the tagging method are rather scarce for most species. We identified 89 publications, reporting effects of external tagging for 80 different fish species, which constitute the main basis for this review. External attachment holds certain benefits compared to other tagging methods, for example, speed of application, and it may be the only option for fishes with a body shape unsuitable for surgical implantation, or when using tags with sensors recording the external environment. The most commonly reported problems with external tags are tissue damage, premature tag loss, and decreased swimming capacity, but the effects are highly context dependent and species specific. Reduced growth and survival have also been recorded, but direct mortality caused by external tagging seems rare. Most of the studies reviewed evaluate tag retention, survival, and tissue reactions. There is a general need for more research on the effects of external tagging of fish with electronic tags, but particularly there are few studies on predation risk, social interactions, and studies distinguishing capture and handling effects from tagging effects. For PSATs, especially those that are large relative to fish size, there are particular problems with a high proportion of premature tag losses, reduced swimming capacity, and likely increased predation, but there remains a paucity of tag effect studies related to the use of PSATs. Before embarking on a field study employing external tagging with electronic tags, we recommend the use of appropriate pilot studies, controlled where possible, to quantify potential impacts of tagging. Telemetry, Tag attachment, Archival tag, PSAT, Survival, Tissue damage, Tag retention, Growth, Swimming, Drag, Entanglement, Biofouling, Predation

uilding new power lines is required to satisfy increasing demands for the transmission of electricity, and at the same time the road network is expanding. To provide guidelines for the routing of new power lines and roads, it is essential to test whether linear features deter or attract movements of animals in different landscape settings. Using GPS relocation data from 151 moose (Alces alces L.) in central Norway, we tested for barrier and corridor effects of roads, power lines and rivers and accounted for forest cover, the topographical orientation of linear features and the placement of other nearby linear features.We predicted step selection probabilities for different movement options at varying distances from linear features and linear feature combinations. Barrier and corridor effects of linear features altered moose movements, although effects were minor compared to the effects of topography and forest cover. Moose did not avoid crossing power lines, unless the placement of power lines along contour lines impeded movements across them. In contrast, moose avoided crossing of roads and rivers in forests. Moose more likely moved along linear features when getting closer to linear features. Barrier and corridor effects were higher for road/river combinations compared to single linear features. Likewise, the barrier and corridor effects were higher for road/power line combinations, but not power line/river combinations compared to single linear features, when moose were close to the edge of those features. The inconsistent pattern could be due to the low sample size. We found indications of higher disturbance potential of roads compared to power lines and rivers. Managing vegetation in power line rights-of-way to provide abundant browse could counteract possible disturbance, while wildlife overpasses could mitigate road fragmentation effects. Alces alces; barrier; corridor; moose; movement; Norway; power lines; rivers; roads; step selection function. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Although the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) is a well-studied raptor, little is known about its prey handling behaviour and food requirement in different temperatures. Such knowledge is important for understanding its prey selection. I collected data on four wild female goshawks by video monitoring their handling of presented prey, 9 mammalian prey and 31 avian prey. I also conducted eight feeding trials, where I presented a mammalian and avian prey simultaneously, to see what the goshawk preferred to feed on. In each of these feeding experiments the goshawk fed on avian prey. The goshawks were more likely to start feeding from the head on small avian prey, and from the breast of larger avian prey. The goshawks were more efficient when feeding on a small avian prey than a large avian prey, and more efficient at high temperature and when proportion of remains was high. The piece size decreased with increasing prey body mass, with lower temperatures, and with lower proportion of remains left. Both the feeding efficiency and piece mass decreased when the mammalian prey was frozen. The goshawks ingested more meat when temperatures were sub-zero. Based on this study, to have the highest handling efficiency, the goshawk should select a small prey, particularly on cold days when the prey would freeze fast. M-NF

1. Predictions based on several reports and harvest statistics during the last decades have proven a worrying decrease in density and abundance of the rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) in the entire distribution area. 2. In this thesis, we applied high quality observation data of rock ptarmigans to examine habitat selection at two scales, across seasons and between different regions. 3. We extracted habitat and terrain variables from a GIS, and modelled habitat selection of rock ptarmigans. We also followed three broods for a total of 36 hours to retrieve some information of their usage of area and habitat. 4. At the regional scale some different patterns emerged across regions. Terrain heterogeneity had a strong influence of occurrence in all regions with positive curve linearity in region West and East, and negative for region Central. Altitude had a positive curvlinear influence in region West (1000 m a.s.l) and East (1550 m a.s.l). Low hillshade values influenced occurrence positively in region East and Central. The vegetation variables Forest/mire, Mooreland, Snow/glacier and Heath with lichen, had all a negative influence in region Central. 5. At a local scale, slope at low to middle steepness had a positive influence of occurrence in both winter and summer. In addition we found that high hillshade values and altitude around the tree-line had a positive influence, whereas the vegetation variable Snow-covered area had a negative impact. Snow-beds seemed to have a positive influence on occurrence in the summer season. 6. Results from our brood analysis indicate that the broods are relatively stationary during day time, spending much of their time in moist and open areas with dominance of vascular plants like different heath species (Calluna spp.), alpine bistort (Polygonum viviparu), snow-bed willow (Salix herbacea) and goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea), while moving at greater distances in the night hours. 7. This thesis is the first analysis of habitat selection by rock ptarmigans in mainland Norway. In addition, it is the first of its kind in Fennoscandia to compare habitat selection between seasons for this species. To prevent further decline in Norwegian rock ptarmigan populations, these results may be indicative in harvest management and conservation to preserve the rock ptarmigans core areas and separate the management from its forest dwelling relative, the willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus). Sammendrag 1. Rapporter og jaktstatistikk fra de siste tiår viser en negativ bestandsutvikling for fjellrypa (Lagopus muta) i hele dens utbredelsesområde. 2. I denne oppgaven har vi innhentet kvalitetssikrede observasjoner av fjellrype fra hele landet for å innbringe kunnskap om artens habitatseleksjon på to skalaer, mellom sesonger og ulike regioner. 3. Verdiene til våre prediktive variabler er hentet ut fra et digitalt vegetasjonskart og en digital terrengmodell for å kunne analysere fjellrypas habitatvalg. Vi har også fulgt tre kull i totalt 36 timer for å innhente informasjon om deres områdebruk og habitatvalg. 4. På regional skala fant vi forskjellige mønstre på tvers av regioner. Felles for alle var at Terrengheterogenitet hadde en klar innvirkning på tilstedeværelsen, med en positiv kurve for regionene Vest og Øst, samt negativ for den Sentrale regionen. Høyde hadde en positiv kurvlineær innvirkning i regionene Vest (1000 moh) og Øst (1550 moh). Lave Hillshade-verdier påvirket tilstedeværelsen positivt i region Øst og i den Sentrale regionen. Vegetasjonsvariablene Skog/myr, Snø/isbre, Rishei og Lavhei, hadde alle en negativ innflytelse i den Sentrale regionen. 5. I analysene fra lokal skala hadde lav til middels Helningsgrad en positiv påvirkning av tilstedeværelse, både i vinter- og sommerhalvåret. I tillegg til Helningsgrad fant vi at høye Hillshade-verdier og høyder rundt tregrensa hadde en positiv påvirkning mens vegetasjonsvariabelen Snødekt areal hadde en negativ påvirkning. Snøleier hadde en positiv innflytelse på tilstedeværelse i sommerhalvåret. 6. Resultater fra våre kullanalyser indikerer at kullene er relativt stasjonære på dagtid. De tilbrakte mye av sin tid i fuktige og åpne områder med dominans av karplanter som forskjellige lyngarter (Calluna spp.), harerug (Polygonum viviparu), musøre (Salix herbacea) og gullris (Solidago virgaurea), mens de flyttet seg over større områder i den mørke delen av døgnet. 7. Denne oppgaven er den første analysen av habitatvalg for fjellrype på det norske fastlandet. I tillegg er det den første av sitt slag i Fennoskandia til å sammenligne habitatvalg mellom ulike årstider for fjellrypa. Disse resultatene kan være veiledende for fremtidig høstingsmodeller og for å bevare fjellrypas kjerneområder. Vi håper også at dette vil kunne føre til en mer spesifikk målrettet forvaltning av fjellrypa, som i dag ikke skilles forvaltningsmessig fra sin nære slektning lirypa (Lagopus lagopus), til tross for sine store forskjeller. M-NF

Habitat modification has been identified as one of the major threats to biodiversity and has increased over recent years due to growing human population and demand for resources. One omnipresent form of habitat modification is the creation of transmission lines by electricity distribution companies. Due to safety concerns, the vegetation beneath electricity transmission lines is maintained at young succession stages by frequent cutting. Data was collected from 51 study sites in the south east Norway. All the sites were situated in forests intersected by a power-line corridor, and represent a range of boreal forest types. I focused on plant responses that may be of particular interest for managers, such as differences in plant community composition between the corridor and forest, total plant species richness and diversity, richness and relative abundance of some functional groups or single keystone species. Likewise, I focused on environmental factors that may be influenced by managers and planners. Greater diversity of species was found to exist in the power-line corridors compared to the interior of the forest. Specifically, I found an increase in richness and relative abundance of forbs, shrubs, light tolerant species and species preferring nutrient rich soils. Although some other species such as bilberry and mosses decreased in the corridors. More importantly, it suggests that the corridors are able to resist plant invasions and support a greater diversity of cultural landscape species. The site index was found to be highly significant in influencing the species composition of the corridor habitats. Total species richness and relative abundance of forbs, shrubs, and cultural landscape species increased with the site index, while the stage of succession and landscape heterogeneity also proved to be significant in shaping the species composition of the power-line corridors. Synthesis and applications. This study confirms that less severe forms of disturbance such as the creation of power-line corridors can cause species diversity to increase and as such provide an opportunity to conserve biodiversity in the face of increasing human land use changes. Key-words: power-line corridors, disturbance, functional groups, species richness, relative abundance, environmental variables M-ECOL

The Arctic is currently warming and this trend is expected to continue. This will lead to increased frequency and spatial extent of rain on snow events which cause ground ice to form. In this extreme and marginal environment, ground ice can have detrimental effects on the species living there. The objective of this study was to investigate how environmental conditions impact seasonal variation in the home ranges of individually marked Svalbard reindeer, in terms of home range size and site fidelity. To accomplish this, GPS data from female Svalbard reindeer in three valleys on Svalbard was combined with information on seasons and icing events. Ground icing was determined based on data from ground temperature loggers, precipitation data and field data on ice thickness. Included in the study were two winters with icing events, 2009/2010 and 2011/2012, and two without, 2010/2011 and 2012/2013. Home ranges were calculated with a 95 % fixed kernel estimator and site fidelity was measured as percent overlap of seasonal polygon home ranges. The reindeer had larger seasonal home ranges and displayed less site fidelity during the winter than during the summer. Winter home ranges were larger during years with icing events, compared to winters without. There was no correlation between calf status and home range size or site fidelity, or between age and site fidelity. Animals aged four to seven years had larger home ranges than younger (2-3 years) and older (8-11 years) reindeer. Svalbard reindeer seem to use small ranges as long as there is enough forage. They expand their home ranges in search for forage due to variations of food accessibility caused by extreme weather events. In a warming Arctic, this behavioral plasticity may be able to buffer the effects of increased rain on snow events on a small spatial scale. M-NF

I studied the foraging strategy in a generalist raptor, the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), in a year with low populations of Microtus voles and bank vole (Myodes glareolus). By video filming prey delivered at the nest, and simultaneously observing the prey allocation behavior outside the nest. The most common prey types delivered at the five nests studied were the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara), followed by birds, voles (Microtus and Myodes), and shrews (Soricidae). I found that the probability that the kestrel returned with items of the same prey type repeatedly differed between prey types, and also depended on weather conditions. The common lizard was more likely to be delivered repeatedly with higher ambient temperature, while shrews were more likely to be delivered repeatedly with lower temperature. For birds no weather variable had an effect, and almost all avian prey delivered repeatedly were nestlings or newly fledged young. This could indicate that a central place foraging kestrel adopts a win-stay strategy, concentrating on prey types with high availability at specific weather conditions. I found that the female was more likely to show aggression towards the male when he delivered the prey directly at the nest than when he delivered the prey to the female outside the nest. Jeg undersøkte hvordan fødesøket hos en generalist blandt rovfuglene, tårnfalken (Falco tinnunculus) var i et år med lav populasjon av Microtus og klatremus (Myodes glareolus). Dette gjorde jeg ved å videofilme byttedyr levert på redet, samtidig som jeg observerte atferden når byttet ble overlevert fra hann til hunn. Det vanligste byttedyret levert på de fem studerte reirene var nordfirfisle (Zootoca vivipara), fulgt av fugler, stumpmus (Microtus og Myodes) og spissmus (Soricidae). Jeg fant ut at sannsynligheten for at tårnfalken leverte samme type byttedyr etter hverandre var forskjellig mellom type byttedyr, og var avhengig av været. Det var mer sannsynlig at firfisle ble levert flere ganger etter hverandre hvis det var høy temperatur, og mer sannsynlig at flere spissmus ble levert etter hverandre ved lav temperatur. For fugler ga ikke værvariabler noen effekt, og fugler som ble levert flere ganger etter hverandre var som regel reirunger, eller unger som nylig hadde forlatt redet. Dette kan tyde på at en tårnfalk, som returnerer med byttet til et sentralt punkt slik som et reir, har tilpasset seg en vinn-vent strategi, og konsentrerer seg om byttedyr som er lette å få tak i, ved spesifikke værforhold. Jeg fant også ut at hunnens aggresjon var større når hannen leverte byttet direkte på reiret sammenlignet med når hannen leverte til hunnen utenfor reiret. Dette antyder at hunnen forsøker å forhindre hannen i å levere direkte til ungene, sannsynligvis for å kunne kontrollere allokeringen av hannens leveranser mellom seg selv og ungene.

M-ECOL

English A review by Cadotte et al. (2011) argue for the importance of using a functional diversity approach in conservation of ecosystem processes. In this study I focused on the functional group of cavity nesting bees, which are solitary bees creating their nests in above-ground cavities. I investigated how resources in a human altered landscape, in this case power line strips, may affect the abundance and species richness of the cavity nesting bees and two functional subgroups whithin the cavity nesting bees. Power line strips may function as habitat for cavity nesting bees by providing floral resources and possible nest sites. Brembles in power line strips may directly function as nest sites for the subgroup of excavator bees. Abandoned beetles holes in the dead wood found in the power line strips may function as nest sites for the subgroup of renter bees. Bees and beetles were sampled in power line strips at 27 different sites in the southeast Norway. I used regression analysis (generalized linear model (GLM)) to find witch environmental variables best explained the abundance and species richness of cavity nesting bees, excavator bees and renter bees. The results showed that the abundance and species richness of cavity nesting bees, excavator bees and renter bees were positively associated with, and best explained by, the abundance of wood boring beetles. This implies that nest sites is the main limiting resource in power line strips, and that wood boring beetles, acting as an ecosystem engineer, are important in providing this nest sites. The abundance and species richness of renter bees are more positively related to the abundance of wood boring beetles when there are no brambles at the site. This indicate that the excavator bees and renter bees compete for nest sites in abandoned beetles holes when there are no brambles at the site. Management to conserve cavity nesting bees have to target and facilitate the abundance of wood boring beetles. This study stresses the importance of knowing the biology and indirect species interactions of the species in concern to prevent negative cascading effects. Norsk En review skrevet av Cardotte et al. (2011) argumenter for at det er viktig å bruke en funksjonell diversitet-tilnærming når en skal bevare økologiske prosesser. I denne studien har jeg fokusert på en funksjonell gruppe kalt «hulrom-bier». Disse biene er solitære bier som plasserer reirene sine i hulrom over bakken. Jeg har undersøkt hvordan ressurser i et landskap påvirket av menneskelig aktivitet, i denne sammenheng kraftgater, kan påvirke antallet og artsrikdommen av disse hulerom-biene og to funksjonelle undergrupper innen hulrom-bier. Kraftgater kan fungere som et habitat for hulerom-bier fordi der finnes blomsterplanter og redelokaliteter. Bringebær og bjørnebær i kraftgatene kan direkte fungere som redelokaliteter for den funksjonelle undergruppen «utgravingsbier». Forlatte billehull i død ved, funnet i kraftgatene, kan bli brukt som redelokalitet av den funksjonelle undergruppen «leiebiene». Biller og bier er blitt samlet i kraftgater på 27 forskjellige lokaliteter i sørøst Norge. Jeg brukte regresjonsanalyse (Generalized linear model (GLM)) for å finne hvilke miljøvariabler som best forklarer antall og artsrikdommen av hulrom-biene, utgravningsbiene og leiebiene. Resultatene viste at både antallet og artsrikdommen av huleboer-biene, utgravningsbiene og leiebiene var positivt assosiert med, og best forklart av antallet vedgravende biller. Dette funnet indikerer at redelokaliteter er den mest begrensede ressursen for disse biene i kraftgater. Dette funnet indikerer også at de vedgravende billene kan fungere som økosystem ingeniører ved å skape redelokaliteter for leiebiene. Artsrikdommen og antallet av leiebier var mer positivt assosiert med antallet vedgravende biller når det ikke var bringebær eller bjørnebær til stede. Dette indikerer at utgravningsbiene og leiebiene kan konkurrere om de samme redelokalitetene i billehull i død ved bringebær og bjørnebær mangler. Når man skal utøve forvaltning for å bevare hulrom-biene, må man også bevare og legge til rette for vedgravende biller. Denne studien viser nødvendigheten av å kjenne til mulige interaksjoner med andre arter og biologien til de artene en skal bevare. På den måten kan en forhindre en uventet negativ følgeeffekt av en miljøpåvirkning. Statnett M-NF

Predators are one of the key elements in shaping the behavior of prey species. Through constructing a landscape of fear they make their prey modify their behavior regarding both habitat and space use, but also activity patterns. Activity patterns may also be affected by a number of other factors such as seasonality. The animal predators pose a threat to their prey throughout the year while humans are bound by hunting seasons. During the day visibility is high and it is a lot easier for the prey to spot predators at greater distances. This makes it difficult and less attractive for predators to hunt in daylight. In the night time conditions are the opposite, low visibility makes it easier for predators to sneak up on their prey. Moonlight changes the night time conditions, giving higher visibility, and is expected to affect the activity patterns of both predators and prey. In this study I have investigated the circadian activity patterns of lynx (Lynx lynx), fox (Vulpes vulpes), roe deer (Capreoulus capreolus), and humans (Homo sapiens) using automatic camera traps. I tested the effects of season, moonlight, habitat, and vicinity of roads on the activity patterns and compared activity patterns of the different animals to see if prey avoid predators in time. In contradiction to what I expected, roe deer - the prey - increased activity levels most in moonlit nights. This might be indicative of a benefit due to moonlight making it easier for the roe deer to detect the predators rather than improving the hunting success of lynx. Still, although they responded less than roe deer, the lynx and fox were also most active in nights with moonlight in compliance with my predictions. The roe deer displayed a crepuscular activity pattern throughout the year with a higher daytime activity level than I expected. The lynx proved to be crepuscular while the fox was nocturnal. Humans were as predicted diurnal. Given these patterns there was some indication that the roe deer avoided both its animal predators by maintaining a relatively high activity level also during the day. It might also be that the lynx attempts to synchronize its activity with that of the roe deer. The fox seemed to avoid its predator, the lynx, by being active during parts of the night when the lynx was less active. The roe deer was more active during summer than during winter while for lynx and fox the results were the opposite. Fox was the only species which seemed to prefer camera trap locations that were close to roads, indicating that it benefits from travelling and searching for food along them. In this study I have by the use of automatic camera traps documented the circadian activity patterns of lynx, roe deer, fox, and humans. I have evaluated the effects environmental factors such as season and moonlight have on the activity patterns of the studied species. In addition I have also documented adaptations in activity patterns in prey and predators. To my knowledge this study is the first of its kind to document the circadian activity patterns of the studied species in a northern boreal ecosystem. It is also unique by its size and duration and I believe that it will be a good contribution to science and an inspiration for researchers worldwide. Predatorer er nøkkelarter i økosystemer og påvirker aktivitetsmønstre hos sine byttedyr. De skaper et «fryktens landskap» som tvinger byttedyrene til å endre både habitat og områdebruk, men også aktivitetsmønstre. Aktivitetsmønstre påvirkes også av en rekke andre faktorer som for eksempel sesong. Dyrepredatorene utgjør en trussel for byttedyr hele året, mens mennesker er begrenset av jaktsesong. Midt på dagen er det god sikt og mye enklere for byttedyr å få øye på predatorer på lengre avstand. Dette gjør det mindre attraktivt for predatorene å jakte i dagslys. Om natta er forholdene motsatt. Kort sikt gjør det lettere for predatorene å snike seg innpå byttet sitt. Månelys endrer forutsetningene for jakt på natta og de bedrede lysforholdene forventes å påvirke både predatorer og byttedyr. I dette studiet har jeg undersøkt døgnaktiviteten til gaupe (Lynx lynx), rev (Vulpes vulpes), rådyr (Capreolus capreolus) og mennesker (Homo sapiens) ved bruk av viltkamera. Jeg har også testet effektene av sesong, månelys, habitat og nærhet til vei og sammenlignet aktivitetsmønstrene til de ulike artene for å se om byttedyr unngår de mest aktive periodene til sine predatorer. I motsetning til hva jeg ventet viste rådyret størst respons på månelys. Dette indikerer at rådyret kan ha fordel av månelys siden det da er enklere for rådyret å se predatorene enn omvendt. Selv om predatorene ikke viste like kraftig respons på månelys som rådyret, så var både gaupe og rev mer aktive i månelyse netter i samsvar med mine prediksjoner. Rådyret var skumringsaktivt gjennom hele året og hadde et høyere aktivitetsnivå på dagtid enn forventet. Gaupa var også skumringsaktiv, reven nattaktiv og mennesker var som forventet dagaktive. Disse aktivitetsmønstrene antyder at rådyret til en viss grad unngår begge sine dyrepredatorer ved å opprettholde et relativt høyt aktivitetsnivå på dagtid. Det kan også virke som om gaupa prøver å synkronisere sine aktivitetstopper med rådyrets. Reven synes å unngå predasjon fra gaupa ved å være mest aktiv på den tiden på natta da gaupa er minst aktiv. Rådyret var mer aktivt om sommeren enn om vinteren, mens for gaupe og rev var resultatene motsatt. Reven ble mest hyppig fotografert av de kamerafellene som stod nærmest vei. Dette kan indikere at den drar fordel av å forflytte seg langs veier og lete etter mat langs dem. I dette arbeidet har jeg dokumentert døgnaktiviteten til gaupe, rev, rådyr og mennesker ved bruk av viltkamera. Jeg har vurdert betydningen miljøfaktorer som sesong og månelys har på aktiviteten til artene. Resultatene viser tilpasninger i aktivitetsmønstre hos både predatorer og byttedyr. Så vidt meg bekjent er dette studiet det første som dokumenterer døgnaktiviteten til disse artene i et borealt økosystem ved bruk av viltkamera. Det er også unikt på grunn av dets størrelse, omfang og varighet, og studiet vil bidra med viktig kunnskap og fungere som en inspirasjon for forskere verden over. M.NF

Understanding a predator’s functional response is an important step in understanding the effect predators have on prey populations. To investigate this five breeding pairs of the Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) had their nest monitored with motion detection camera and the recordings of prey delivery were used to estimate their diet. The relative abundance of prey was estimated with the use of snap trapping around each nest. The results showed that in a year with low vole abundance the kestrel had a functional response to shrews (Soricidae), with bank voles (Myodes glareolus), birds, common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) and Microtus voles as an alternative prey to shrews. My results suggest that shrews are the preferred prey for the kestrel in a season with low vole abundance. The profitability of voles and shrews seems similar and my results indicate that kestrels focus more in shrews when vole abundance is low. Short term changes in the environment were obtained and related to prey selection. The activity pattern of ectothermic reptiles, such as lizards, is dependent on weather conditions. By model testing and selection I found that the probability that a prey item delivered at a kestrel nest was a lizard increased towards midday and increased with ambient temperature. The probability that a prey delivered at the nest being a bird was best explained by time, and the probability increased later in the day. This may be due to a change in the activity pattern of the prey or a change of focus by the kestrel. The probability that a prey delivered was a Microtus-vole was best explained by precipitation, this could be due to of the habitat use of this vole and the negative effect water could have on hunt- and flight ability. The probability that a prey delivered was a bank vole was best explained by temperature, with temperatures having a positive effect. This could be because of the shift in focus away from the primary prey, shrews, which had a higher probability of being delivered at the nest with lower ambient temperature. Sammendrag Det å forstå en predators funksjonell respons er et viktig steg i forståelsen av hvilken effekt predatorer har på byttedyrpopulasjoner. For å undersøke dette ble fem hekkende par med tårnfalk (Falco tinnunculus) overvåket med kameraer og opptakene ble brukt til å estimere dietten deres. Den relative tettheten av byttedyr ble estimert med fellefangst rundt hvert reier. Resultatene viste at i et år med lav tetthet av smågnagere hadde tårnfalken en funksjonell respons på spissmus (Soricidae), med klatremus (Myodes glareolus), fugler, Nordfirfisle (Zootoca vivipara) og smågnagere som tilhører Mictrotus-slekten som alternativt byttedyr til spissmus. Mine resultater antyder at spissmus er det prefererte byttedyret for tårnfalk når smågnagerpopulasjonen er lav. Lønnsomheten av smågnagere og spissmus ser ut til å være lik for tårnfalk og mine resultater indikerer at tårnfalk fokuserer mer på spissmus i et år med lav bestand av smågnagere. Kortsiktige forandringer i miljøet ble anskaffet og relatert til byttedyrseleksjon. Aktivitetsmønsteret for ektoterme reptiler, som firfisle, er avhengig av værforhold. Med modelltesting og -seleksjon fant jeg at sannsynligheten for at et byttedyr levert på reiret var en firfisle økte nærmere midt på dagen og økte med temperatur. Sannsynligheten for at et byttedyr levert på reiret var en fugl ble best forklart med tid, og sannsynligheten økte senere på dagen. Dette kan være fordi aktiviteten hos byttedyrene forandrer seg igjennom dagen. Sannsynligheten for at et byttedyr levert på reiret var en smågnager i Microtus-slekten ble best forklart med mengden nedbør. Dette kan være på grunn av habitatbruken av Microtus og den negative effekten vann kan ha på jaktevnen til tårnfalken. Sannsynligheten for at et byttedyr levert på reiret var en klatremus ble best forklart med temperatur, med temperatur som positiv effekt. Dette kan være på grunn av en forandring i fokus bort fra primærbyttedyr, spissmus, som hadde høyere sannsynlighet på å bli levert på reiret ved lavere temperatur.

The Siberian tit is a northern taiga species and a habitat specialist. There is a small population in South Norway, with a limited range in northern parts of Hedmark county and adjoining areas in Oppland and Sør‐Trøndelag counties. The Finnish population declined considerably in the latter half of the 1900s as a result of clear‐cutting of forest. Little new information about the South Norwegian population has been obtained since Bengtson & Sonerud (1991) published their review of population status and trends up to the 1980s. In the present study, a line‐transect census was carried out along a total length of 314 km of suitable biotope. The aim was to obtain up‐to‐date information on population status and, in the event that there had been a decline, whether this could be due to forestry or to more intense interspecific competition as a result of climate change and/or winter feeding by humans. Only five Siberian tit territories were found, while 191, 38 and 109 territories respectively were recorded for willow tit, crested tit and great tit. The census also indicated that the range of the Siberian tit has shrunk over the past 30 years, becoming restricted to three core areas: around the northern half of Lake Femunden, Aumdalen and Folldal. Some areas that were censused in the late 1970s, were recensused during the present study, and no Siberian tits were found in areas where the species previously made up 9 % of the avian community. The proportion of willow and great tits was considerably higher than in the late 1970s. Analyses showed little difference between the tit species in habitat choice. Nor was there any tendency for Siberian tits to be observed at higher elevations than previously, which would be a probable response to climate change. Bengtson & Sonerud (1991) estimated that the Siberian tit population in South Norway was at least 1000 pairs in the late 1970s. On the basis of the new census, it is estimated that the population is now roughly 70–140 pairs, which corresponds to a population decline of 86–93 %. This may be linked to the general decline that has been observed in the Swedish population during roughly the same period. Possible reasons suggested for the population decline are a combination of felling of old‐growth forest and more intense competition with other species of tits, which could in turn be a result of milder winters and more winter feeding. The thesis discusses possible management measures in response to the decline. Lappmeis er en nordlig taigaart og en habitatspesialist. Den sørnorske populasjonen er liten, og utbredelsen begrenser seg til de nordlige delene av Hedmark med tilgrensende områder i Oppland og Sør‐Trøndelag. Den finske bestanden har gått kraftig tilbake på siste halvdel av 1900–tallet på grunn av hogst. Det er lite ny kunnskap om den sør‐norske bestanden siden Bengtson & Sonerud (1991) sin oppsummering av status fram til 1980‐tallet. For å få ny kunnskap om bestandsutviklingen, og om årsaken til en eventuell nedgang i bestanden kan skyldes hogst eller økt interspesifikk konkurranse grunnet klimaendringer og/eller vinterfôringer, takserte vi 314 kilometer i egnet biotop. Vi fant 5 territorier av lappmeis, mens for granmeis, toppmeis og kjøttmeis fant vi henholdsvis 191, 38 og 109 territorier. Lappmeisens utbredelse hadde også i løpet av de siste 30 årene krympet mot tre gjenværende kjerneområder i Femundstraktene, Aumdalen og Folldal. Også retakseringer av områder som ble undersøkt på slutten av 1970–tallet, viste at lappmeis ikke ble observert i områder hvor den utgjorde 9 % av fuglesamfunnet tidligere. I den samme perioden hadde andel av granmeis og kjøttmeis økt nokså betydelig. Analyser viste også at det var liten forskjell i habitatvalg mellom meiseartene. Med hensyn til eventuelle klimaendringer viste analysene også at det var ingen trend på at lappmeisfunn lå høyere over havet nå enn før. På slutten av 1970–tallet var bestandsestimatet fra Bengtson & Sonerud (1991) minst 1000 par. I dag anslår vi en bestandsstørrelse på omtrent 70–140 par. Lappmeisens nedgang i bestanden vil etter dette være på 86–93 %. Nedgangen kan relateres til en generell bestandsnedgang i Sverige i omtrent samme periode. Vi antar at bestandsnedgangen kan skyldes en kombinasjon av avvirkning av eldre skog og økt konkurranse fra andre meiser, som igjen kan skyldes både mildere vintre og økt fôring om vinteren. Mulige forvaltningstiltak blir diskutert.

Uttrykket ”fryktens landskap” ble innført som en visuell modell for å forklare hvordan frykt kunne endre byttedyrs atferd og arealbruk for å redusere risikoen for å bli drept når predatorer er tilstede. Ulike habitater representerer ulike nivåer av risiko. Byttedyrene velger habitat utfra en avveiing mellom predasjonsrisiko og næringsbehov. Gaupa (Lynx lynx) og jegerne har ulik jaktteknikk, og det forventes dermed at de representerer to ulike fryktlandskap. Dette studiet undersøker hvordan hjortens (Cervus elaphus) og rådyrets (Capreolus capreolus) predasjonsrisiko fra gaupe og jeger endrer seg med habitatet med fokus på skjul, og om de ulike predatorene representerer to ulike fryktlandskap. Habitatet på lokaliteter i Hallingdal, Norge, der rådyr og hjort har blitt drept av GPS-merkede gauper eller skutt av jegere, ble sammenlignet med habitater der GPS-merkede rådyr og hjort har oppholdt seg uten å bli drept. Gaupa er kjent for å være en snikpredator og jegerne er kjent for å ha høyest jaktsuksess i åpent terreng. Hypotesen min var derfor at risikoen for å bli drept av gaupe reduseres med økt sikt og risikoen for å bli skutt av jeger øker med økt sikt for begge byttedyrartene. I samsvar med hypotesen fant jeg at den relative risikoen for å bli skutt av jeger øker når sikten øker. For hjort er det en redusert risiko for å bli drept av gaupe når sikten øker, mens for rådyret var det ingen habitatvariable som signifikant påvirket risikoen for å bli drept av gaupe. Dette kan skyldes at gaupa tvinges til å jakte i åpent terreng grunnet lave hjorteviltbestander i Hallingdal og at den er en effektiv rådyrjeger også i åpent habitat. Resultatene kan tyde på at når gaupa skal legge ned en stor hjort er den mer avhengig av å ha godt skjul slik at den kan angripe på kloss hold. Dette ser ikke ut til å være avgjørende for suksessen når den jakter på det mye mindre rådyret. Hjortedyrene i dette studiet er utsatt for dobbeltpredasjon med risiko for å bli drept i både tett og åpent terreng. For begge hjortedyrene ser vi at gaupe og jeger lager ulike fryktlandskap for hjort og rådyr. Hjortedyrene blir tvunget til å velge mellom to ”onder” og må gjøre en avveiing mellom næringssøk og predasjonsrisiko, under jakten må de i tillegg gjøre en avveiing mellom de to predatorene.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd ex Klotzsch) is a non-food and non-feed, vegetatively propagated ornamental plant which is among the economically most important ornamentals worldwide. Desirable plant height is one of the most important traits in such species. To obtain compact plants, growers are regularly using chemical growth retardants such as CCC (chlormequat chloride) or alar/daminozide (dimethylaminosuccinamic acid), which inhibit the gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis, resulting in compact plants. However, growth retardants have negative impacts on the environment and human health among others by potentially being carcinogenic. Thus, it is highly desirable to further restrict their use. This PhD project has explored the use of a plant genetic engineering approach and regulation of light quality by using light emitting diodes (LEDs) to control shoot elongation in poinsettia. The SHORT INTERNODES gene from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtSHI) was introduced into poinsettia by the use of an Agrobacterium-based transformation system (paper I). Light quality effects on plant morphology was investigated in greenhouse compartments and growth chambers by comparing use of traditional high pressure sodium (HPS) lamps as supplementary light with a combination of 80% red (R) and 20% blue (B) light from light emitting diodes (LED) (paper II). Also, the effect a 30 min end-of-day (EOD) treatment provided by R LED light was investigated in both light regimes (Paper II). To investigate the effect of manipulation of the phytochrome system on hormone physiology, and since the knowledge on hormone physiology in poinsettia was limited, the effects of EOD-R and EOD-FR on hormone levels were compared (paper III). Three independent transgenic lines (TL1, TL2, TL3) harbouring AtSHI were identified by PCR, and stable integration was confirmed by Southern blot analysis (paper I). When grown under short (SD; 10 h) or long day (LD; 16 h) conditions all three transgenic lines showed reduced shoot elongation compared to untransformed wild type (WT) control plants. TL1 showed the shortest stems and internodes under SD with 52% and 49% reduction, respectively, compared to the WT. This correlated with the highest AtSHI expression, and a trend of 31% lower levels of indole-3 acetic acid (IAA) in TL1 compared to the WT. All three cultivars tested (‘Christmas Spirit’, ‘Christmas Eve’ and ‘Advent Red’) showed reduced plant height (20-34%) under 20% B and 80% R provided by LED light compared to the traditionally used HPS lamps (5% B) (paper II). The phytochrome photostationary state (PPS) under the LED and HPS was very similar, indicating that B light receptors such as cryptochromes are important to control stem elongation of poinsettia. Furthermore, in ‘Advent Red’ exposure to EOD-R resulted in reduced stem extension by 13% when HPS was used as supplementary light (paper II). By contrast, under the B-R supplementary LED light, EOD-R did not reduce shoot elongation, suggesting that the light-receptor dependent inhibition of shoot elongation had already been saturated due to the high content of B and R. In the other cultivar tested, ‘Christmas Eve’, no effect of the EOD-R-treatment was observed under any of the two light regimes. This might be due to differences in phytochrome light receptors or their action. Lower plants under EOD-R compared to EOD-FR correlated with lower levels of IAA, gibberellin (GA) and abscisic acid (21%, 28% and 19%, respectively) in shoot tips (paper III). The GA analyses revealed that the 13-hydroxylation pathway of GA biosynthesis is probably dominating over the non-13-hydroxylation pathway. In conclusion, these results demonstrates the potential for using genetic engineering and exploiting light quality responses in order to reduce the use of plant growth retardants in greenhouse production of poinsettia. However, the difference in response to EOD-R in the tested cultivars emphasizes the importance of investigating light quality responses in different commercially grown cultivars. Julestjerne (poinsettia; Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd ex Klotzsch), som verken benyttes til fôr eller mat og formeres vegetativt, er blant de økonomisk viktigste potteplantekulturer i verden. Kontroll av plantehøyden er av avgjørende betydning i slike arter. For å oppnå kompakte planter benyttes regelmessig behandling med kjemiske veksthemmere som CCC (chlormequat chloride) eller alar/daminozide (dimethylaminosuccinamic acid). Disse hemmer gibberellin- (GA) biosyntesen. Kjemiske veksthemmere har imidlertid negative effekter på miljøet og human helse, blant annet ved å være potensielt kreftframkallende. Det er derfor sterkt ønskelig å begrense bruken av disse ytterlige. Dette PhD-arbeidet har undersøkt muligheten for å benytte genteknologi og manipulering av lyskvalitet ved hjelp av lys-dioder (LED; fra engelsk «light emitting diodes») til å kontrollere strekningsveksten hos julestjerne. «SHORT INTERNODES»-genet fra vårskrinneblom (Arabidopsis thaliana) (AtSHI) ble satt inn i julestjerne ved hjelp av Agrobacterium-basert genteknologi (artikkel 1). Effekter av lyskvalitet på plantemorfologi ble undersøkt i veksthus og vekstkammere ved å sammenligne bruk av tradisjonelle høytrykksnatriumlamper (HPS; fra engelsk «high pressure sodium») som tilleggslys med bruk av LED-lys som ga en kombinasjon av 80% rødt (R) og 20% blått (B) lys (artikkel II). I tillegg ble effekten av en 30 minutters behandling med R LED-lys på slutten av dagen (EOD; fra engelsk «end of day») studert (artikkel II). For å undersøke effekten av manipulering av fytokromsystemet på hormonfysiologien, og siden kunnskapen om hormonfysiologien i julestjerne var begrenset, ble effektene av 30 minutter med EOD-R og EOD-mørkerødt (MR) på plantenes hormoninnhold sammenlignet (artikkel III). Tre uavhengige transgene linjer (T1, T2, T3) med innsatt AtSHI ble identifisert ved hjelp av PCR og stabil integrering bekreftet ved hjelp av southern blot-analyse (artikkel I). Ved dyrking under kort (KD; 10 timer) og lang dag (16 timer) viste alle tre linjer redusert strekningsvekst sammenlignet med ikke-tranformerte villtype-kontrollplanter. TL1 hadde de korteste stenglene og internodiene under KD med henholdsvis 52 % og 49 % reduksjon sammenlignet med villtypen. Dette korrelerte med det høyeste AtSHI-uttrykket og en tendens til lavere (31 %) nivåer av indol-3-eddiksyre (IAA) i TL1 sammenlignet med villtypen. Alle de tre testede julestjernesortene (‘Christmas Spirit’, ‘Christmas Eve’ og ‘Advent Red’) viste redusert plantehøyde (20-34 %) under 20 % B and 80 % R fra LED, sammenlignet med de tradisjonelt brukte HPS lampene (5 % B) (artikkel II). Fytokromstatus var svært lik under LED og HPS og dette tyder på at B-lysreseptorer som kryptokromer er viktige i å kontrollere strekningsveksten i julestjerne. I ‘Advent Red’ førte EOD-R til 13 % reduksjon i stengelstrekningen når HPS ble brukt som tilleggslys i veksthuset, sammenlignet med bruk av kun HPS uten EOD-R (artikkel II). I motsetning til dette, ble strekningsveksten ikke redusert av EOD-R-eksponering under B-R-LED-lysbehandlingen. Dette kan tyde på at lysavhengig hemming av stengelstrekning i dette tilfellet allerede var mettet på grunn av det høye nivået av B og R-lys. I den andre testede julestjernesorten, ‘Christmas Eve’, ble det ikke observert noen effekt av EOD-R under noen av de to lysregimene. Forskjellen mellom sortene kan muligens skyldes forskjeller i fytokrom-lysreseptorer eller deres virking. Lavere planter under EOD-R sammenlignet ned EOD-MR korrelerte med lavere nivåer av IAA, GA og abscisinsyre (henholdsvis 21 %, 28 % og 19 %) i skuddspissene (artikkel III). Analysene viste at 13-hydroksylerte gibberelliner forekom i større mengder enn ikke-13-hydroksylerte. De oppnådde resultatene viser potensial for å benytte genmodifisering og utnytte responser på lyskvalitet for å redusere bruk av kjemiske veksthemmere i veksthusdyrking av julestjerne. Forskjellene i respons på EOD-R i ulike julestjernesorter understreker imidlertid betydningen av å undersøke lyskvalitetsresponser i forskjellige kommersielt dyrkede sorter. Joint Proof-of-Concept Fund

For å auke kunnskapen om prydgras i Noreg vart det gjort ei utprøving av 35 ulike prydgrasslag med omsyn til herdighet og eigenskapar knytt til prydverdi og bruk ved Universitet for miljø- og biovitskap (UMB) i Ås. Formålet med denne oppgåva var å vidareføre utprøvinga til ein tredje vekstsesong. Risiko for uønskt spreiing til omgjevnadane var også testa ved å undersøke om fire av prydgrasslaga som produserte spiredyktige frø i utprøvinga, klarte å etablere seg i fire ulike skogsmiljø; i skog og i bryn, i botnvegetasjon og i open jord. Dei fire prydgrasslaga var Carex muskingumensis, Luzula nivea, Miscanthus sinensis ‘Kleine Fontäne’ og Sesleria autumnalis. I utprøvinga hadde elleve prydgras eit heilskapsinntrykk som var godt eller betre. Grasa med gode karakterar var Molinia caerulea ‘Overdam’, M. c. ‘Variegata’ og M. c. ‘Edith Dudszus’, Miscanthus sinensis *, M. s. ‘Silberfeder’ og M. s. ‘Malepartus’, Molinia arundinaceae ‘Cordoba’, M. a. ‘Karl Foerster og M. a. ‘Transparent’, Carex muskingumensis og Calamagrostis brachytricha. Fjorten prydgrasslag hadde eit middels godt heilskapsinntrykk. Ti prydgrasslag hadde under akseptabelt heilskapsinntrykk. Desse var Stipa gigantea, Hakonechloa macra, H. m. ’Aureola’ og H. m. ‘Albostriata’, Miscanthus x giganteus, Miscanthus sinensis ‘Undine’, Panicum virgatum ‘Squaw’ og P. v. ‘Heavy Metal’, Molinia arundinaceae ‘Windspiel’ og Sesleria nitida. Sjukdom, manglande bløming, dårleg vekst og utgang var årsak til redusert heilskapsinntrykk. I etableringsforsøket etablerte alle dei fire grasslaga seg godt i alle miljø. Det var lite utgang. Generelt vaks grasa best i bryn, som var betydeleg lysare enn skog. Dette tyder på at ljos var den viktigaste faktoren for god etablering. Unnataka var M. sinensis ‘Kleine Fontäne’ og S. autumnalis som ikkje hadde så ulik vekst og tilvekst i skog og i bryn. Tilveksten i antal skot var derimot ikkje så ulik i bryn og i skog. L. nivea og M. sinensis ‘Kleine Fontäne’ hadde likevel størst tilvekst i antal skot i bryn. Grasslaga vaks også best i ruter med open jord, der konkurransen var mindre. Skilnadane var likevel ikkje så store hjå S. autumnalis og L. nivea. For høgdetilvekst var det berre C. muskingumensis som hadde størst tilvekst i ruter med open jord. S. autumnalis var det einaste grasslaget som bløma. Bløminga var best i bryn. Ein vekstsesong er for lite til å seie noko sikkert om artane sitt spreiingspotensiale. Feltet bør vidareførast for å sjå meir på spreiingspotensialet frå både frø og utløparar. To increase knowledge about ornamental grasses in Norway, a trial of 35 different ornamental grasses was conducted with regards to frost hardiness and characteristics associated with ornamental value and use at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB) at Ås. The objective of this thesis was therefore to continue the trial to a third growing season. Risk of invasion was also tested by examining if four ornamental grasses, that produced viable seeds in the trial, managed to establish themselves in four different treatments; in partial shade and shade, in existing undergrowth and in open ground. The four ornamental grasses were Carex muskingumensis, Luzula nivea, Miscanthus sinensis 'Kleine Fontäne' and Sesleria autumnalis. In the trial eleven ornamental grasses had a good total impression or better. The grasses with good grades were Molinia caerulea ‘Overdam’, M. c. ‘Variegata’ and M. c. ‘Edith Dudszus’, Miscanthus sinensis *, M. c. ‘Silberfeder’ and M. c. ‘Malepartus’, Molinia arundinaceae ‘Cordoba’, M. a. ‘Karl Foerster and M. c. ‘Transparent’, Carex muskingumensis and Calamagrostis brachytricha. Fourteen ornamental grasses had a medium well appearance. Ten ornamental grasses had a low total impression. These were Stipa gigantea, Hakonechloa macra, H. m. ’Aureola’ and H. m. ‘Albostriata’, Miscanthus x giganteus, Miscanthus sinensis ‘Undine’, Panicum virgatum ‘Squaw’ and P. v. ‘Heavy Metal’, Molinia arundinaceae ‘Windspiel’ and Sesleria nitida. Disease, lack of blooming, poor growth and death decreased the total impression. In the field trial, the four grasses established themselves well in all treatments. Generally, the grasses grew best in partial shade where the level of light was significantly higher than in shade. This suggests that light was the most important factor for the species to establish well. The exceptions were M. sinensis ‘Kleine Fontäne’ and S. autumnalis who grew about as well in shade as in partial shade. However, the increase in number of shoots was not so dependent on light. But L. nivea and M. sinensis ‘Kleine Fontäne’ had the greatest increase in shoots in partial shade. The grasses also grew best in squares with open ground, where the competition was smaller. However, the difference was not as large in S. autumnalis and L. nivea. C. muskingumensis was the only grass that had the greatest increase in height in open ground. S. autumnalis was the only grass that bloomed. It bloomed best in partial shade. One growing season is too little to say something certain about these species invasive potential. The experiment should be recorded in the following years to examine the species invasive potential further.

Bumblebees are important pollinators of crops and wild flowers, and the observed decrease in natural bumblebee populations are therefore an increasing cause of concern. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate how bumblebees are affected by different variables in the fragmented landscape. The questions raised were if the density of flowering plants and habitat configuration could explain the species richness, abundance and size of bumblebees. Questions about preferred forage plant species were also addressed. The study was conducted during the summer of 2012 in south-east Norway, which has a landscape dominated by a mixture of intensive cereal production and coniferous forests. 13 different species of bumblebees were found in this area and the results showed that the total abundance and species richness of social bumblebees were positively influenced by the density of flowering plants. Results show no significant effects of area, circumference or type of remnant on species richness, abundance or size of bumblebees. The preferred plant species for bumblebees in general were preferred by all observed species. Between casts, differences in preferred plant species were found. The results also indicate that bumblebees prefer perennial plants over annuals.

Global temperature is increasing, especially over Northern lands (>50 N), owing to positive feedbacks. As this increase is most pronounced in winter, temperature seasonality (ST)—conventionally defined as the difference between summer and winter temperatures—is diminishing over time, a phenomenon that is analogous to its equatorward decline at an annual scale. The initiation, termination and performance of vegetation photosynthetic activity are tied to threshold temperatures. Trends in the timing of these thresholds andcumulative temperatures above them may alter vegetation productivity, or modify vegetation seasonality (SV), over time. The relationship between ST and SV is critically examined here with newly improved ground and satellite data sets. The observed diminishment of ST and SV is equivalent to 4 and 7 (5 and 6 ) latitudinal shift equatorward during the past 30 years in the Arctic (boreal) region. Analysis of simulations from 17 state-of-the-art climate models4 indicates an additional ST diminishment equivalent to a 20 equatorward shift could occur this century. How SV will change in response to such large projected ST declines and the impact this will have on ecosystem services5 are not well understood. Hence the need for continued monitoring6 of northern lands as their seasonal temperature profiles evolve to resemble those further south.

PIT-telemetry study about the tendency of freshwater fish to migrate to brackish water. CMR analysis to find survival probabilities under different covariates. Comparing of growth rate between migrating and non-migrating individuals and life-table simulations to estimate fitness for the two behavior options. Migration is a common behaviour in many species and the duration and migration distance vary among species. The occurrence of migration has been related to a gain in fitness through feeding, refuge and spawning benefits, and is often a trade-off between benefits e.g. gaining high growth rate, and disadvantages, as exposure to predators. In this study I look at the demography behind the tendency to migrate, and compare growth and survival between Storelva rudd (Scardinius erythropthalmus) that migrate to brackish water with those that do not. I test the hypothesis that migratory individuals of rudd experience higher or equal fitness than non-migratory individuals, primarily driven by growth benefits from residing in brackish waters. A total of 455 individuals were PIT-tagged. Capture-Mark-Recapture-analysis was used to find their survival probabilities and between-habitat migration probabilities under different period-specific and individual-specific covariates. Individual growth rates were compared between the two groups and I used life-table simulations to estimate fitness for the different behaviour options. The freshwater rudd grew slightly better and growth rate was positively correlated to temperature. Migration to brackish water was driven by river discharge and migration to freshwater by fjord salinity. Survival in brackish water was affected by salinity and fish length and survival in freshwater by water discharge and temperature. Rudd smaller than 12-13 cm had very low survival rates in brackish water. Population mean fitness was lower in migratory individuals than for the freshwater residents. The ultimate prediction from my study is that the migratory genotypes over time will vanish from the population. I discuss short-comings in the fitness estimates and that the estimates are premature owing to a short study period and lack of information about the maturation pattern. Since the migrants experience no growth-related benefits from migrating into the brackish-water habitat, I suggest that density-dependent factors in the freshwater habitat comprise the main driver of this migration system. In particular, I suggest that the high pike density in Lundevann may motivate the migrants to seek lower predation-pressure in the freshwater habitat. The rudd migrants constitute a threat to spreading of rudd along the coast and into new water courses. There might be two subpopulation types and they should be managed accordingly. In conclusion, the driving forces behind rudd migration in the Storelva system remains enigmatic and continuation of the PIT-tag study should be secured.

Greenhouse as a production system is important in the production of vegetables, herbs and ornamental plants. However, plant production in continuous high relative air humidity (RH) may results in poor plant quality, due to uncontrolled water loss after harvest. This water loss is caused by less functioning stomata that are larger in size and unable to close properly in environments that normally induce closure, like darkness and dry air. Since stomatal movement is regulated by abscisic acid (ABA) it has been hypothesized that low levels of ABA is the cause of the less functioning stomata. In this study the ability of Rosa x hybrida, Arabidopsis thaliana and Vicia faba developed in continuous high (90%) and moderate RH (60%) to close the stomata was evaluated. Further, the ABA content and regulation was studied in Rosa x hybrida and A. thaliana. Since both ABA and darkness are signals for stomatal closure and induce the production of the secondary messenger hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) the ability of V. faba to initiate H2O2 production when treated with ABA or transferred to darkness was also assessed. This study shows that stomata developed in continuous high RH have reduced response to closing stimuli compared to plants grown under moderate RH. The results also show that Rosa x hybrida and A. thaliana have slightly different ABA regulation. In Rosa x hybrida ABA-glucose ester (ABA-GE) is an important storage form of ABA, which can be released when needed. In A. thaliana the level of ABA is mostly regulated at the level of biosynthesis and inactivation to phaseic acid (PA). Compared to high RH, Rosa x hybrid developed in moderate RH (60%) and 20 h photoperiod contained higher levels of ABA and had higher β-glucosidase activity. Also, the amount of ABA increased during darkness simultaneously as the ABA-GE levels decreased. In contrast, plants developed under high RH and a 20 h photoperiod showed no increase in ABA levels during darkness, and had low β-glucosidase activity. Continuous lighting (24 h) resulted in low levels of β-glucosidase activity irrespective of RH, indicating that a dark period is essential to activate β-glucosidase in roses. It has been hypothesized that plants developed in high RH are unable to produce large amounts of ABA. However, this study clearly shows that A. thaliana developed under high RH were able to produce large amounts of ABA during desiccation. However, they still had high water loss in the desiccation test. The difference in water loss between wild type and ABA-deficient mutants were similar in both RH treatments indicating that it is not the lower ABA levels per se that result in less functioning stomata in high RH. The results from V. faba developed in high RH show that the plants are able to increase the H2O2 production when the ABA levels are increased. However, they do not increase the H2O2 production during darkness. These results suggest that the reduced stomatal response in plants developed in continuous high RH is caused either by one or more factors downstream of H2O2 in the signaling pathway towards stomatal closure or might possibly be a result of changed guard cell anatomy. The results also show that plants developed in high RH, that are given a daily 2h temperature increase/RH decrease have improved stomatal function. However, the stomatal functioning is still not as good as in moderate RH. Veksthus som produksjonssystem er viktig i produksjon av grønnsaker, urter og prydvekster. Imidlertid gir dyrking i kontinuerlig høy relativ luftfuktighet (RH) dårlig kvalitet på grunn av ukontrollert vanntap etter høsting. Det høye vanntapet er en konsekvens av store, ufunksjonelle spalteåpninger, som ikke lukker seg fullstendig under forhold som normal fører til lukking. Siden spalteåpningsbevegelse er regulert av plantehormonet abscisinsyre (ABA), er det fremsatt en hypotese om at høy RH resulterer i lave ABA nivåer i plantene og at de lave ABA-nivåene gir ufunksjonelle spalteåpninger. I denne studien ble lukkeevnen til spalteåpninger fra Rosa x hybrida, A. thaliana og V. faba utviklet i kontinuerlig høy (90%) og moderat RH (60%) undersøkt. Videre ble ABA nivå og regulering hos Rosa x hybrida and A. thaliana studert. Siden både ABA og mørke er signaler som fører til lukking av spalteåpningene gjennom økning av hydrogenperoksid (H2O2) produksjon ble evnen til å produsere H2O2 undersøkt i V. faba etter ABA-tilførsel eller etter flytting til mørke. Denne studien viser at planter utviklet i kontinuerlig høy RH har nedsatt evne til å lukke spalteåpningene. Resultatene viser også at Rosa x hybrida og A. thaliana har ulik ABAregulering. I Rosa x hybrida er ABA-glukoseester (ABA-GE) viktig i lagring av ABA, som siden kan frigis når det trengs. I A. thaliana er ABA-nivået avhengig av biosyntesen og inaktivering til phaseinsyre (PA). Rosa x hybrida utviklet i moderat RH og 20 timer lys inneholdt mer ABA og hadde høyere β-glucosidase-aktivitet. I tillegg ble ABA-nivået økt i mørke samtidig som ABA-GE-nivået ble redusert. I motsetning hadde planter utviklet i høy RH med 20 timer lys ingen økning av ABA-nivå i mørke og lavere β-glucosidase-aktivitet. Kontinuerlig lys ga lavere β-glucosidase-aktivitet uavhengig av RH, noe som viser at mørke (natt) er viktig for å aktivere β-glucosidase. En hypotese har vært at planter utviklet i høy RH ikke kan produsere tilstrekkelige mengder ABA for stomatalukking. Imidlertid viser denne studien tydelig at A. thaliana utviklet i høy RH kan produsere store mengder ABA under dehydrering. Til tross for dette har plantene fortsatt stort vanntap. Forskjellen i vanntap mellom villtype og mutanter som ikke inneholder ABA var lik i begge RH-behandlingene, noe som indikerer at lavt ABA-nivå ikke alene er grunnen til de ufunksjonelle spalteåpningene i høy RH. Resultatene fra V. faba utviklet i høy RH viser at plantene øker H2O2-nivået når ABA-nivået øker, men de øker ikke H2O2-produksjonen i mørke. Disse resultatene indikerer at de ufunksjonelle spalteåpningene i planter utviklet i kontinuerlig høy RH er en konsekvens av påvirkning på enten en eller flere faktorer nedstrøms for H2O2-produksjon i signalveien til lukking av spalteåpningene eller er et resultat av endret lukkecelleanatomi. Resultatene viser også at planter utviklet i høy RH, men som er gitt 2 timer daglig med høy temperatur/lav RH utvikler bedre evne til å lukke spalteåpningene. Men, de har fortsatt ikke like god lukkeevne som planter utviklet i moderat RH.

Although the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is a well-studied raptor, there is a lack of studies on its prey handling-behaviour, which is important for understanding its prey selection. I extracted data on four individuals of the golden eagle from video footage, where the golden eagles were fed 32 avian prey, 29 mammalian prey, and 4 pieces of pure meat to see whether the golden eagle handled pure meat different than natural prey. I analysed the plucking and feeding behaviour for each feeding trial. Both number of plucks and plucking time for avian prey increased with prey body mass. It was more efficient for the golden eagle to feed on and handle a mammalian prey than to feed on and handle a similar-sized avian prey. Piece size decreased with increasing prey body mass for both prey types, while a piece from a mammalian prey was twice as large as a piece from a similar-sized avian prey. Further, the amount of non-ingested remains increased with increasing prey body mass, and there were more remains from an avian prey than from a similar-sized mammalian prey. Handling efficiency was higher for pure meat than for avian prey but did not differ from mammalian prey, while feeding efficiency were the same for pure meat and for both prey types. The golden eagles were most likely to start feeding from the breast of avian prey, and from the head of small mammalian prey. Further, the golden eagle were more likely to swallow mammalian prey whole than avian prey, due to more amounts of noningested parts in avian prey. Smaller prey were more profitable than larger prey, and mammalian prey were more profitable than avian prey. Thus, based on the cost of prey handling, golden eagles should select smaller prey, and mammals rather than avian when self-feeding. Kongeørnen (Aquila chrysaetos) er en svært utbredt rovfugl, noe som gjør den til en velstudert art. Likevel finnes det svært få studier på artens byttedyrhåndtering, noe som vil være en viktig faktor i viten om kongeørnens byttedyrseleksjon. Gjennom videoopptak har jeg i dette studiet observert fire ulike kongeørners håndtering av til sammen 31 fugler, 29 pattedyr, og 4 porsjoner rent kjøtt for å undersøke om kongeørnen håndterte rent kjøtt annerledes enn naturlige byttedyr. Jeg analyserte plukke- og spiseadferd for hvert måltid, hvor jeg først fant at antall plukk, samt plukketid økte med økende byttedyrmasse hos fugl. Det var mer effektivt for kongeørnen både å spise og å håndtere et pattedyr, enn å spise og håndtere en tilsvarende stor fugl. Videre fant jeg at bitstørrelsen sank med økt byttedyrmasse for både fugl og pattedyr, og at bitstørrelsen fra et pattedyr var dobbelt så stor som bitstørrelsen fra en tilsvarende stor fugl. Andel ufordøyde rester fra byttedyr økte med økt byttedyrmasse, hvor det var mer rester fra fugl enn for et tilsvarende stort pattedyr. Håndteringseffektiviteten for rent kjøtt var høyere enn håndteringseffektiviteten hos fugl, men lik i forhold til pattedyr, mens spiseeffektiviteten var lik hos både rent kjøtt, fugl og pattedyr. Kongeørnen foretrakk å starte spisingen fra brystpartiet hos fugl, mens hos mindre pattedyr startet kongeørnen spisingen fra hodet. Tilslutt fant jeg at kongeørnen svelget pattedyr hel hyppigere enn fugl, som kan skyldes mindre andel ufordøyelige deler i pattedyr enn i fugl. Mindre byttedyr gav en høyere inntaksrate enn større byttedyr, mens pattedyr gav en høyere inntaksrate enn fugl. Basert på kostnadene ved håndtering av byttedyr, burde kongeørnen foretrekke mindre byttedyr, samt foretrekke pattedyr fremfor fugl. 2017-08-15 M-NF

The diet and handling of prey in breeding golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) was studied by video monitoring one nest in southern Norway in a year of peak vole (Cricetidae) population and low willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus) population, from the nestlings were c. 10 days old until fledging. Handling time was determined for different prey types and prey sizes when the female fed the nestlings and when the nestlings fed unassisted. A total of 181 prey items were recorded delivered. In total 70% of all prey items delivered at the nest were birds and 30% were mammals. The most important prey type was willow grouse, both by numbers (34%) and by mass (35%). Mountain hare (Lepus timidus) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) made up 7% and 3%, respectively, by numbers, and 33% and 14%, respectively, by mass. Thrushes (Turdus sp.) (24%), Microtus voles (11%) and lemming (Lemmus lemmus) (9%) were also important numerically as prey in the breeding diet of the eagles. No ungulates were observed delivered at the nest. The male golden eagle delivered the majority of prey (68%) to the nest and he mainly delivered birds (80%). The probability of delivering a willow grouse at the nest decreased throughout the season. The eagles appeared to adjust hunting strategy to prey species, and willow grouse was most likely hunted by using a win-shift strategy while thrushes were more likely to be hunted with a win-stay strategy. Preparation of prey prior to delivery at the nest (plucking or partitioning) was more likely for avian than for mammalian prey, and also for larger prey, but less likely with increasing age of the nestlings. Further preparation in the nest by plucking of prey before feeding was more likely to be preformed by the female rather than by the nestlings. Handling time was longer for mammalian than for avian prey and increased with body mass of the prey, both when the female fed the nestlings and when the nestlings ingested prey unassisted. To explain prey selection there is still a need for assessing handling efficiency of different prey. 2015-05-15

Bestanden av hjort (Cervus elaphus) i Norge har økt betydelig i de siste tiårene samtidig som det har vært omfattende endringer i landbruket i Norge liksom ellers i Europa. Eng og innmark er viktige næringskilder for hjorten, og det kan bli mindre tilgang på eng i framtida. Denne oppgaven tar for seg hjortens preferanser i forhold til ulike driftsmåter av innmark. Hovedhypotesen var at hjorten foretrekker innmark som gir en optimal avveining mellom mengde og kvalitet. Studieområdet strekker seg fra Tingvoll på Nordmøre til Børsa i Sør-Trøndelag. Data på hjort kom fra 14 koller og 12 bukker utstyrt med GPS-halsbånd i forbindelse med et merkeprosjekt ledet av Bioforsk på Tingvoll. Posisjoner samlet i perioden 2007 – 2010 ble plottet inn på kart. Ut fra dette er det valgt 115 innmarkspar, hvert med ett mye brukt og ett lite brukt areal. Informasjon om innmarksparene ble innhentet ved å intervjue berørte gårdbrukere. Datamaterialet ble analysert med bruk av case control logistic regression 1-1 matched design. Resultatene viser at driftsform, brukshistorikk og beliggenhet har betydning for hjortens bruk av innmarka. Begge kjønn hos hjorten foretrakk eng fremfor innmark med andre driftsformer, intensivt gjødslet eng framfor mindre gjødslet eng, samt eng av midlere alder framfor ny og gammel eng. Preferansen for innmark økte med avstand til vei. Resultatene kan tyde på at optimum for engas alder var forskjøvet mot eldre eng hos bukker enn hos koller, men denne forskjellen var ikke statistisk signifikant. Avstand fra innmark til skog gav ingen påviselig effekt. Undersøkelsen antas å være representativ for landbruksområder på Nordmøre og Sør-Trøndelag, og er antakelig den første i sitt slag i Norge.

Winter climate and snow cover are the important drivers of plant community development in polar regions. However, the impacts of changing winter climate and associated changes in snow regime have received much less attention than changes during summer. Here, we synthesize the results from studies on the impacts of extreme winter weather events on polar heathland and lichen communities. Dwarf shrubs, mosses and soil arthropods were negatively impacted by extreme warming events while lichens showed variable responses to changes in extreme winter weather events. Snow mould formation underneath the snow may contribute to spatial heterogeneity in plant growth, arthropod communities and carbon cycling. Winter snow cover and depth will drive the reported impacts of winter climate change and add to spatial patterns in vegetation heterogeneity. The challenges ahead lie in obtaining better predictions on the snow patterns across the landscape and how these will be altered due to winter climate change.

The Afrotropical Bengalia spinifemorata species-group is revised and their male genitalia illustrated by means of digital colour photography. Six species are recognized and keyed, and their geographical distribution reconsidered, i.e., Bengalia akamanga (Lehrer, 2005), comb. nov. (Malawi); B. racovitzai (Lehrer, 2005) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya); B. seniorwhitei (Lehrer, 2005) (Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda); B. smarti (Lehrer, 2005), comb. nov. (Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe); B. spinifemorata Villeneuve, 1913 (Democratic Republic of Congo) and B. wangariae (Lehrer, 2005), comb. nov. (Democratic Republic of Congo). Maraviola congoliana Lehrer, 2005, M. samburella Lehrer, 2005, M. amlaka Lehrer & Freidberg, 2008, M. danakiliana Lehrer & Freidberg, 2008, and M. akufulana Lehrer, 2011 are recognized as synonyms of Bengalia seniorwhitei, syn. nov. The genus group names Sindhigalia Lehrer, 2006 and Anshuniana Lehrer & Wei, 2010 are reduced to synonyms of Bengalia Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, syn. nov. The distiphallus is described in detail and new morphological terms introduced. Ten synapomorphies defining the B. spinifemorata species-group are listed. A re-assignment of the Oriental species B. fani Feng & Wei, 1998 to the Afrotropical B. spinifemorata species-group to replace its current position in the B. peuhi species-group is rejected since B. fani shares none of the ten synapomorphies of the former group.

Quantitative characterization of the mode and rate of phenotypic evolution is rarely applied to prokaryotes. Here, we present an analysis of temperature optimum (Topt) evolution in the thermophilic family Thermotogaceae, which has a large number of cultured representatives. We use log-rate-interval analysis to show that Topt evolution in Thermotogaceae is consistent with a Brownian motion (BM) evolutionary model. The properties of the BM model are used to a establish confidence intervals on the unknown phenotypic trait value of an uncultured organism, given its distance to a close relative with known trait value. Cross-validation by bootstrapping indicates that the predictions are robust. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00792-011-0381-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The abundance of wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) has declined since the 1970s. The major reason for the recent decline appears to be increased marine mortality. Before 1970s, the native populations of Atlantic salmon were exterminated in several rivers in Southern Norway due to acidification, but in the last two decades many of these have been re- established, due to liming of the rivers. The aim of this study was to analyse marine growth of Atlantic salmon caught with bag net near the River Mandalselva on the Skagerrak coast in the years 2004-2010. The sampled fish were maturing adults, most of which were probably returning to the River Mandalselva or other rivers in the same area. I determined age and growth of the fish from the scales. The rate of measurement error from the scale reading was low so one reading of each scale was conducted. The sampling error declined when more scales per fish were measured. In this study I measured four scales per fish, a number that both took into account requirements for precision and the amount of work. The number of circuli deposited in the scales and the inter- circuli distances were measured. The growth rate of Atlantic salmon during the first year at sea was positively correlated with the number of circuli present at the end of the same period. The number of circuli deposited after the winter-band was positively related to the catch date. The inter-circuli distances increased rapidly after the smolt had entered the sea, reaching a point of inflection at circuli number six. There was a significant year-to-year variation in the total number of circuli deposited during both first and second growth year at sea. There was a reduction in the peaks of maximum inter-circuli distances for the multi-sea-winter (MSW) Atlantic salmon first growth year at sea over the entire study period, 2001-2008. The total number of circuli deposited during the first growth year at sea differed significantly between the one-sea-winter (1SW) and MSW Atlantic salmon. 1SW fish deposited a higher number of circuli than the MSW fishes. The observed variations in growth while at sea were probably related to variation in temperature that acted directly on fish growth by affecting physical processes or indirectly by affecting changes in the ecosystem. Findings in this study highlight the importance of considering both circuli number and inter-circuli distances when studying Atlantic salmon growth rather than to solely rely on inter-circuli distances.

Tilstandsvurdering av 323 ulike staudeslag i nordiske anlegg med ulike typer voksemiljø. I tillegg er det gjort en litteraturstudie som omhandler staudenes egenskaper og voksemiljø. Staudebruk og staudenes tilstand er registrert i syv utvalgte anlegg med ulike voksemiljø i Oslo, Akershus og Østfold i Norge, og Göteborg og Kungälv i Sverige. Studien har tatt utgangspunkt i Hansen & Stahls (1993) bok Perennials and their garden habitats, som baserer seg på at viktige økologiske faktorer som lys, vann og jordforhold danner grunnlaget for miljøene; skog, bryn, lysåpne steder, fjellhage, ved/i vann og rabatt. Totalt er det gjort 1173 registreringer på til sammen 323 staudeslag. For staudebruken i anleggene er det også gjort en vurdering av om det er tatt hensyn til de enkelte planteslagenes opprinnelige voksemiljø. Anleggene var preget av et stort antall arter og kultivarer. De mest brukte staudeslagene var Actaea simplex, Alchemilla mollis, Aruncus dioicus, Astilbe x arendsii, Echinacea purpurea, Euphorbia, Geranium ’Jolly Bee’, G. macrorrhizum, Helenium cvv., Hemerocallis cvv., Heuchera spp., Hosta fortunei, Hylotelephium telephium, Ligularia dentata, Molina caerulea cvv., Phlox paniculata cvv. og Veronicastrum virginicum. Staudene var som regel plantet i større grupper og i noen tilfeller som solitære. Det var i stor grad tatt hensyn til staudenes opprinnelige voksemiljø i anleggene. Totalt hadde 75 % av staudeslagene i skogsmiljø skog som naturlig voksested. For bryn, lysåpne steder, i fjellhager og i rabatt, varierte det mellom 81 % - 87 % som hadde tilsvarende steder som naturlig voksemiljø. Størst samsvar var det i anlegg ved vann hvor hele 91 % hadde ved vann som opprinnelig miljø. Høyest gjennomsnittlig helhet hadde miljøene ved vann og i lysåpne steder, noe som viser at rikelig tilgang på lys og fuktighet har betydning for å oppnå god vekst hos en rekke staudeslag. Mange arter og kultivarer som var plassert i et annet miljø enn sitt naturlige, viste generelt god vitalitet, på tross av annen opprinnelse. Dette kan først og fremst skyldes anleggenes høye grad av skjøtsel, eller at flere av disse artene/kultivarenes naturlige voksemiljø hadde likhetstrekk med sitt utplasserte miljø. I tillegg kan det være at flere av staudeslagene har en bred tilpasning for ulike typer miljø. Dårlig vekst hos noen staudeslag som vokste nær trestammene i skog og bryn hadde sammenheng med at disse plantene konkurrerte med trærnes røtter om plass, vann og næring. Lav vitalitet hos planteslag uavhengig av hensynet til opprinnelsesmiljø, skyldtes angrep av skadegjørere, jordbunnsforhold, dårlig konkurranseevne eller at registrering ble utført på sensommeren der flere planteslag hadde avsluttet blomstringen. Viktige registrerte skadegjørere var soppsykdommen meldugg og skadedyret snegl. Arter/kultivarer med gjennomsnittlig høy dekkevne var Actaea simplex, Alchemilla mollis, Darmera peltata, Epimedium x rubrum, Hosta lancifolia, Miscanthus sinensis, Rodgersia pinnata, Saponaria x lempbergii, Waldsteinia ternata, og flere av Geranium- slagene. Noen planteslag var konkurransesterke og hadde tendenser til sterk spredning. Eksempel på slike var Alchemilla mollis, Geranium macrorrhizum, Telekia speciosa, Scirpus sylvaticus og Solidago cv. ABSTRACT An assessment of the condition of herbaceous perennials and how they are used in different growing environments has been carried out in seven public parks/ vegetation- sites in Oslo, Akershus and Østfold in Norway, and Gothenburg and Kungälv in Sweden. The study is based on Hansen & Stahl’s (1993) book, Perennials and their garden habitats, in which the ecological factors such as light, water and soil conditions form different growing habitats for perennials. The habitats are woodland, woodland edge, open ground, rock garden, water’s edge, marsh/ in water and borders. A total of 1173 registrations have been made for a total of 323 perennials. It is also made an assessment of whether each perennials natural growing environment is taken into account in these public parks and vegetation- sites. The parks and vegetation sites were characterized by a large number of species and cultivars. The most commonly used perennials were Actaea simplex, Alchemilla mollis, Aruncus dioicus, Astilbe x arendsii, Echinacea purpurea, Euphorbia, Geranium ’Jolly Bee’, G. macrorrhizum, Helenium cvv., Hemerocallis cvv., Heuchera spp., Hosta fortunei, Hylotelephium telephium, Ligularia dentata, Molina caerulea cvv., Phlox paniculata cvv. og Veronicastrum virginicum. Perennials were usually planted in large groups and in some cases as solitary. The study show that the species/cultivars naturally growing habitats was largely taken into account of. 75 % of the herbaceous perennials registered in woodland- environments, grow naturally in woodland. In woodland edges, open ground, rock gardens and borders it varied between 81-87 % in which the plants have similar growing environment as their natural habitat. The highest compliance was in the water’s edge/marsh where entire 91 % originally grow in this type of environment. Perennials planted by water’s edge and in open ground had the best vitality. This shows that high amount of sunlight and humidity is important for achieving good growth in herbaceous perennials. Many of the species and cultivars in which were placed in growing sites different from its natural one, showed good vitality in spite of dissimilar origins. This may primarily due to the parks high degree of maintenance or that several of these perennials original habitats have similarities with the environments in the parks. In addition, some of these perennials may have a wide adaption to different habitats. Poor vitality of some herbaceous plants growing near the tree trunks in woodland and woodland edge was due to competition for space, water and nutrients between the trees roots and the perennials roots. Low vitality of plants regardless of the interests of their natural environments was due to pests, soil conditions, poor competiveness, or that registration was done in the late summer where several plants had finished flowering. Important pests and diseases were powdery mildew and snails. Perennials with good covering qualities were Actaea simplex, Alchemilla mollis, Darmera peltata, Epimedium x rubrum, Hosta lancifolia, Miscanthus sinensis, Rodgersia pinnata, Saponaria x lempbergii, Waldsteinia ternata, and several of the Geranium species. Some species showed strong competitiveness and spreading-characteristics. Examples of such were Alchemilla mollis, Geranium macrorrhizum, Telekia speciosa, Scirpus sylvaticus and Solidago cv.

The main scope of this thesis is to illustrate the validity of oribatid mites as tools for palaeoecological reconstructions. Palaeoecology studies the responses of past organisms to past environmental changes. This can be accomplished through the use of biological proxies, which are indicators of past conditions. The search for additional means of distinguishing climate change has only recently led to the use of other commonly found biological proxies such as tiny oribatid mites known as moss-mites. Oribatid mites are among the most numerous biological remains in anoxic sediments, yet until now oribatids have not been widely used due to the uncertainties about their present distribution and the lack of expertise to identify them to species level. This thesis contains four papers which provide evidence about how oribatid mites, when they are properly identified to species level and their background distribution is adequately known, can give useful additional and supporting information for reconstructing past habitat and environmental conditions. Paper I studied oribatid preferences and ecology in different habitats, mainly forested, in western Norway. One hundred and ninety two species were found of which 64 were new records for Norway. The species Chamobates borealis, Oppiella nova, Moritzoppia neerlandica, and Rhinoppia subpectinata characterised the oribatid communities of Betula, mixed, and Picea forest subsets. Deciduous forest oribatid communities were characterised by Achipteria coleoptrata, Acrotritria ardua, Ceratozetes gracilis, and Oribatella calcarata. Hemileius initialis, Nanhermannia dorsalis, C. borealis, Tectocepheus velatus, and Atropacarus striculus characterised wet habitats. In water-logged habitats, Limnozetes ciliatus, Mucronothrus nasalis, and Trimalaconothrus glaber dominated. Carabodes labyrinthicus, C. marginatus, Melanozetes mollicomus, and T. velatus characterised the oribatid community of the lichen and moss subset. The tree-line ecotone was dominated by the euryceous species H. initialis, T. velatus, and Oribatula tibialis. This study represents a thorough survey of oribatid communities in western Norway, and the insights it gives are an important tool for habitat reconstructions, as they provide the background knowledge about modern oribatid fauna needed to identify the type of past plant community and past environments represented in Quaternary sediments. Paper II studied the oribatid communities at the tree-line in western Norway and compared them with the oribatid fossil assemblages found in Lake Trettetjørn. The modern oribatid assemblage provided a guide to the reliability of the fossil assemblages to reconstruct ecological and environmental changes and, in addition, to find the most favourable coring point within the small lake. Results showed that the core retrieved from the middle of Lake Trettetjørn basin represented the oribatid fauna from the catchment area. Aquatic oribatids were the best group represented in the lake sediments, followed by oribatids from the habitats adjacent to the lake. This constitutes good evidence that oribatids are excellent indicators of local habitats. Comparison of the oribatid fauna found in the lake traps with the oribatid assemblages from paper III illustrated the importance of identifying the mites to species level, as this increased the ecological indicator value and, therefore, the reliability of the palaeoreconstructions. In Paper III, sub-fossil oribatid mites, pollen, plant macrofossils, and diatoms from a lake sediment core from western Norway were studied. This multi-proxy study attempted to reconstruct tree-line fluctuations and their impact on Lake Trettetjørn’s environment. Evidence from pollen, plant macrofossils, and oribatids complemented and corroborated each other in the reconstruction of the vegetational development. A semi-open grassland developed into forest. Mires began to replace forested areas on the landscape as a more oceanic climate began to prevail. All proxies indicated increasingly intensive human land-use as the Upsete settlement grew to accommodate the construction of the Bergen-Oslo railway. In Paper IV, oribatid mites and pollen were used to reconstruct the local habitat at an archaeological excavation. The study aimed to identify the start of cereal cultivation at Kvitevoll farm, on Halsnøy island, western Norway. The high number of oribatid remains identified to species level and the close match to pollen stratigraphy led to a detailed palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Oribatids and pollen indicated the development of a moist forest followed by vegetation openings and mire expansion over the site. At the top of the sequence, the presence of oribatids such as Tectocepheus velatus and the increase in members of the family Oppiidae indicated a higher degree of disturbance, probably from grazing. Pollen of Cerealia indicated the start of cultivation around the same time.