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The quality of images obtained from cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) is important in diagnosis and treatment planning for dental and maxillofacial applications. However, X-ray scattering inside a human head is one of the main factors that cause a drop in image quality, especially in the CBCT system with a wide-angle cone-beam X-ray source and a large area detector. In this study, the X-ray scattering distribution within a standard head phantom was estimated using the Monte Carlo method based on Geant4. Due to small variation of low-frequency scattering signals, the scattering signals from the head phantom can be represented as the simple predetermined scattering signals from a patient's head and subtracted the projection data for scatter reduction. The results showed higher contrast and less cupping artifacts on the reconstructed images of the head phantom and real patients. Furthermore, the same simulated scattering signals can also be applied to process with higher-resolution projection data.

Hemifacial microsomia (HFM) is a rare, multisystemic congenital disease with estimated frequency of 1/26370 births in Europe. Most cases are sporadic and caused by unilateral abnormal morphogenesis of the first and second pharyngeal arches. The aim of this study is to define the types and frequency of maxillofacial and systemic malformations in HFM patients. This is a case series study of patients with HFM evaluated at a single institution. Data were acquired through history, physical examination, photographs, diagnostic radiology, and laboratory and analyzed by the FileMakerPro database on 95 patients (54F; 41M) of which 89 met the inclusion criteria. Mandibular hypoplasia was observed in 86 patients with right-side preponderance (50). One patient had bilateral mandibular hypoplasia. Seventy-four had external ear anomalies (anotia or microtia). Eleven had bilateral malformed ears. Hearing impairment, associated with stenosis or atresia of the external ear canal, was found in 69 patients (eight with bilateral canal defects). Ocular anomalies were seen in 41 (23 with dermoid cysts) and 39 had orbital malformations. Facial nerve paralysis was observed in 38 patients. Cleft lip/palate (10), preauricular tags (55), and macrostomia (41) were also described. A total of 73/86 had systemic malformations, mainly vertebral (40), genitourinary (25), and cardiovascular (28). Sixteen had cerebral anomalies (four with intellectual disability). All patients suspected of HFM should undergo a complete systematic clinical and imaging investigation to define the full scope of anomalies. Since the disease is rare and complex, affected patients should be monitored by specialized multidisciplinary team centers., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Over the past decades, there has been a substantial amount of innovation and research into tissue engineering and regenerative approaches for the craniofacial region. This highly complex area presents many unique challenges for tissue engineers. Recent research indicates that various forms of implantable biodegradable scaffolds may play a beneficial role in the clinical treatment of craniofacial pathological conditions. Additionally, the direct delivery of bioactive molecules may further increase de novo bone formation. While these strategies offer an exciting glimpse into potential future treatments, there are several challenges that still must be overcome. In this chapter, we will highlight both current surgical approaches for craniofacial reconstruction and recent advances within the field of bone tissue engineering. The clinical challenges and limitations of these strategies will help contextualize and inform future craniofacial tissue engineering strategies.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between mandibular movement and facial morphology parameters measured using 3-dimensional CT data., Materials and Methods: We have developed a mandibular movement tracking and simulation system. The mandibular movement data were acquired from 22 subjects (6 males and 16 females), 3 who had no clinical facial deformities and 19 who had orthofacial deformities. The subjects voluntarily performed maximum mouth opening and closing movements. Three-dimensional maximum linear movements of selected points (bilateral condylions, infradentale, and pogonion) were calculated to represent mandibular movement. Facial morphology values were measured 3-dimensionally from CT data and bilateral morphological values were divided into 2 groups according to the mandibular deviation, the deviated side, and counter-deviated side groups. Correlation coefficients were calculated to evaluate the relationship between mandibular movements and facial morphology., Results: Maximum linear movements of all selected points on the mandible were positively correlated with sella-nasion-point A (SNA) and sella-nasion-point B (SNB). Movements of the infradentale and pogonion were significantly correlated with ramus inclination, lateral mandibular body angle, ramus length, and mandibular body length. Condylar movement was positively correlated with lateral mandibular body angle and mandibular body length. Multiple stepwise linear regression analysis was performed to evaluate the model predicting the effect of morphological values on mandibular movement. Condylar movement was associated with the SNA (R(2) value = 0.32 for the deviated side, R(2) value = 0.26 for the counter-deviated side), and movement of the infradentale was associated with both SNA and ramus length (R(2) value = 0.57). Movement of the pogonion could be predicted by SNA, mandibular length, and condylar head length (R(2) value = 0.65)., Conclusion: The 3D facial morphology values were associated with variations in mandibular movement, and morphological parameters contributed to predicting the movement of the mandible with different degrees., (Copyright © 2010 Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To investigate the rotational variations of three-dimensional (3D) trajectories at anatomic landmarks by different mandibular kinematics, we applied principal axes of inertia to the 3D trajectories. The principal rotations were determined directly from the anatomy-based trajectories produced by a patient-specific temporomandibular joint simulation. As a preliminary study, the principal rotations for a pilot group of patients with mandibular deviation were correlated with the deviation., Study Design: Three-dimensional mandibular movements from the patients with mandibular deviation were tracked based on a patient-specific splint and an optical tracking system. The dental occlusion recorded on the splint provided synchronization for initial movement in the tracking and the simulation phases. The translation and rotation recorded during tracking were applied sequentially to the mandibular model in relation to a fixed maxilla model. The sequential positions of the points of interest based on the reference coordinate system could also be simulated and traced by the same method. The landmarks selected for analysis were the points of the bilateral condyles and of the mandibular incisor. The moment of inertia tensor was calculated with respect to the 3D trajectory points. Using the unit vectors along the principal axes derived from the tensor matrix, α, β, and γ rotations (horizontal, sagittal, and frontal planes) around the z-, y-, and x-axes, respectively, were determined to represent the principal directions as principal rotations., Results: The measured rotations were correlated with the deviation in 3 orthogonal planes. Under the influence of the mandibular asymmetry, the orientations of the principal axis at the condyles increase counterclockwise in the horizontal plane and clockwise in the frontal plane. At the incisor point, the horizontal and frontal angles increase counterclockwise, but the sagittal angles increase clockwise. The interrelations between different rotations and between landmarks, defined as a correlation coefficient between principal rotations, decrease as the deviation increases., Conclusions: Three-dimensional trajectories at selected landmarks based on the reference coordinate system were evaluated using principal axes of inertia to investigate the functional characteristics of the mandible with a deviation. The movement asymmetry between the condyles increases as the deviation increases in all directions. The principal rotations at the condyles can be explained by those at the incisor with varying degrees despite the deviation., (Copyright © 2010 Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Tumors of the hypothalamic-pituitary unit have been linked to genetic syndromes that are associated with midfacial abnormalities., Aim: We hypothesized that mutations of genes that affect the development of the face (and consequently of the anterior pituitary) may be present in children with ACTH-producing pituitary adenomas, and if this is true then facial measurements would be different from those predicted by parental features., Methods: We studied 20 children with corticotropinomas and a control group and their parents. All facial measurements were expressed according to standard deviation scores., Results: Significant differences were seen between the children with pituitary adenomas and their parents for vertical facial height measures: nasal length (p < 0.001), lower facial height (p < 0.03) and overall facial height (p < 0.01)., Conclusion: We conclude that some of the indices of midline craniofacial development, in particular those affecting the vertical axis, are different in children with corticotroph adenomas producing ACTH.

Growth factors are currently being extensively studied in the literature to ascertain their role during maxillofacial development. Taking into account that few investigations refer to the functions of growth in the maxillaries, our aim was to identify the TGF-beta1 immunohistochemical expression pattern in the maxillaries of growing rats. A secondary aim was to identify this pattern after orofacial function inhibition by muscle section. In the palate and the mandibular symphysis and body, we found that bone was formed through an endomembranous pathway with intense TGF-beta1 staining inside chondroid cells during the maximum development stages. At the midpalatal suture and the mandibular symphysis and condyle, endochondral ossification was detected with an intense expression of TGF-beta1 inside the chondrocytes when major growth occurred. After the muscle had been sectioned, at the mandible the maturation process was accelerated, this change being transitory until muscular function was recovered. However, at the palate, the intervention caused a greater disturbance of the growing pattern, which did not recover normality.

The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the long-term orofacial development of Down children who received plate therapy according to Castillo Morales in their early childhood. The orofacial development of 27 Down children was documented before and after plate therapy and at a follow-up examination 13 years +/- 6 months after initiation of therapy. The orofacial appearance significantly improved during therapy (p = 0.00). During the follow-up, mouth posture remained stable (p = 0.259), whereas tongue position further improved (p = 0.034). A better long-term development was documented in children with initial severe orofacial dysfunctions.

Retinoic acid has been shown to adversely affect craniofacial development. Cleft palate and craniosynostosis are two examples of craniofacial defects associated with prenatal exposure to this agent. Although the effects of retinoic acid on cephalic neural crest-derived tissues have previously been studied, the specific effects of retinoic acid on the cellular biology of osteoblasts remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to analyze in detail the effects of pharmacologic doses of retinoic acid on the differentiation and proliferation of osteoblasts derived from an intramembranous source. Primary rat calvarial osteoblasts were established in culture and treated with 1 or 10 microM all-trans-retinoic acid. Retinoic acid treatment markedly increased expression of osteopontin up to 48 h after stimulation. Consistent with this early stage of differentiation, both mRNA and protein analysis of FGF receptor isoforms demonstrated a switch in predominance from fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (fgfr2) to fgfr1. Analysis of PCNA protein confirmed inhibition of proliferation by retinoic acid. To determine whether these alterations in osteoblast biology would lead to increased differentiation, we examined short term [alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity] and long term (von Kossa staining) surrogates of bone formation in vitro. These assays confirmed that retinoic acid increased osteogenesis, with a 4-fold increase in bone nodule formation in cells treated with 10 microM retinoic acid after 28 days. Overall, our results demonstrated that pharmacologic doses of all-trans-retinoic acid decreased osteoblast proliferation and increased differentiation, suggesting that retinoic acid may effect craniofacial development by pathologically enhancing osteogenesis., (2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Background: Orofacial regulation therapy for children with Down's syndrome was introduced to Europe in Munich in 1978. Since then, many clinical studies have provided scientific evidence that this therapeutic approach enhances the orofacial function and facial appearance of children with trisomy 21. Only few long-term results have been published to date., Patients and Results: In the present study, 20 children with trisomy 21 were examined more than 12 years after starting treatment in infancy with a Castillo Morales stimulating plate. The follow-up examination showed that the improved orofacial appearance resulting from the early treatment had remained stable in most cases. Although the mechanical stimulus of the stimulating plate was absent during the follow-up period, some patients revealed a lip and tongue posture superior to that recorded at baseline., Conclusion: According to the results of the present study, the orofacial status in early childhood is decisive for the subsequent development of the orofacial region and the long-term stability of the achieved improvements: Children with a pronounced orofacial dysfunction showed a greater stimulation-plate-induced improvement than those with initially moderate orofacial findings. This observation was confirmed by the findings of the 12-year follow-up: Children with Down's syndrome and initially slight orofacial impairment displayed only slight improvements or unchanged findings.

Traumata, diseases, developmental deformities, and tumor resections frequently cause bone defects and atrophies. In general, three different mechanisms exist by which bone restoration can be achieved: (1) osteogenesis initiated by vital, osteoblastic cells of autografts; (2) osteoconduction (or creeping substitution); and (3) osteoinduction. The latter mechanism means the differentiation of pluripotent, mesenchymal-type cells (located in a recipient bed with strong regenerative capacity) into cartilage- and bone-forming progenitor cells under the influence of inductive bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). Some BMPs are physiologically included in low concentrations as organic components in bone tissue. They can diffuse from demineralized bone implants into the recipient bed and induce a differentiation into new bone tissue. Nine different BMPs have been isolated, characterized, and cloned. Some of these possess inductive properties and can initiate new bone formation in muscle tissue or in bone defects. In the future recombinant BMPs will be available in unlimited quantities. This will lead to completely new therapeutic concepts in reconstructive bone surgery.