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American mink Neovison vison may be particularly vulnerable to toxicities of persistent contaminants such as PCBs because of their aquatic-based diet, position near the top of the food web, and small deme sizes. Furthermore, ranched mink are sensitive to reproductive toxicities of fish diets from PCB-polluted sites. The upper Hudson River is highly contaminated with PCBs and previous studies have shown elevated hepatic burdens of total and coplanar PCBs in mink collected near the river compared with those from more distant locales in New York and elsewhere. We hypothesized that bioaccumulation of PCBs in Hudson River mink has reduced their levels of genetic diversity or altered their genetic population structure. To address this, we conducted microsatellite DNA analysis on collections made in proximity to and from more distant locales in the Hudson River watershed, elsewhere in New York State, and at other sites in eastern North America including New Brunswick, four locales in Ontario, multiple drainages in Maine, and two ecoregions in Rhode Island. We did not find reduced genetic diversity at the individual or population levels in mink collected near (<6 km) to PCB hotspots in the Hudson River nor evidence of altered population structure. Consistent with their distribution in small localized and isolated demes, we did find significant genetic population structure among many mink collections in New York State and elsewhere. Depending on the analytical approach used, genetically distinct populations numbered between 16 when using STRUCTURE to 19-20 when using Exact G tests, F ST, or AMOVA analyses. Genetically distinct population units were found among major ecoregions and minor ecoregions in New York State, among different hydrologic subunits within the Hudson River watershed, among spatially separate locales in Ontario, and among most watersheds in Maine. However, despite this localization and potential heightened impact of stressors, genetic diversity and genetic population structure in mink does not seem to be affected by their bioaccumulation of high levels of PCBs of Hudson River origin.

Many non-linear processes link atmospheric emissions to the bioavailability of metals; consequently, the monitoring of metals in ecosystem components is required to model their ecodynamics. American mink (Neovison vison) and river otter (Lontra canadensis) have the potential to serve as an upper-level-consumer component in monitoring metals bioavailability. However, the relationship of bioaccumulated metals to various environmental factors has not been explored nor have the effects of demographic factors been resolved. To address these limitations, mink and otter, collected throughout New York State during 1998-2002, were analyzed for hepatic concentrations of total mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Relationships were investigated between metals concentrations and landscape-level factors (physiographic zone, hydrologic unit, and elevation) and demographic factors (gender and age). Considerable variation in Hg and Cd concentrations was observed relative to both physiographic zone and hydrologic unit for both species. In contrast with Hg, Cd concentration increased predictably with increasing elevation. Mercury concentrations were greater, but for Cd less, in otter than mink. Lead concentrations showed little landscape heterogeneity and were independent of elevation. Age-related bioaccumulation was evident for Hg and Cd, but not for Pb, in both species. Mercury and Cd concentrations were greater in female than male mink; however, Pb concentrations were greater in males than females. Inverse relationships of relative growth (weight/length) to metals concentrations explained gender differences in Hg and Cd in mink. For otter, no gender-related differences in metals concentrations were apparent. The suitability of mink and otter for monitoring programs is discussed.

The distribution of natural populations of American mink is restricted to locales that are in proximity to aquatic ecosystems. Because of the lipophilicity and persistence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and reliance of mink on aquatic-based diets, mink at contaminated locales often bioacccumulate high levels of PCBs. In addition, in controlled laboratory studies, mink are highly sensitive at reproductive and developmental end points to the toxic effects of environmental PCB mixtures. It is believed that most, if not all, toxic effects of PCBs occur through activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) pathway. Transcription of cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) by PCBs is also mediated through activation of AHR. Thus, levels of CYP1A1 mRNA provide a quantitative assay of exposure to and early biologic effect of PCBs on mink and may be predictive of toxicity at higher levels of biologic organization. We developed polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers to amplify CYP1A1 as well as identified a housekeeping gene from mink cDNA. We used real-time reverse transcription-PCR to quantify and compare levels of hepatic CYP1A mRNA among groups of ranched mink kits and juveniles, which were fed diets or exposed in utero to fish that were low in PCBs (Atlantic herring) or to diets that were contaminated with three different levels of PCBs (carp) from Saginaw Bay, Lake Michigan. We found significant differences in CYP1A1 mRNA expression between mink fed the control diet and those fed a PCB-contaminated carp diet at all three treatment levels and exposure times. CYP1A1 mRNA was significantly induced 5.3- to 6.6-fold and 3.7- to 4.7-fold at 6 and 27 weeks, respectively. In previous studies, dietary exposures to PCB-contaminated carp were shown to cause mild to moderate lesions in the mandible and maxilla of these animals. This study demonstrates that hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA may be a sensitive biomarker of exposure of mink to environmentally relevant levels of PCBs and may be predictive of their effects in natural populations.

Concentrations of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and several other perfluoroalkyl surfactants (PASs) were determined in nine major water bodies (n = 51) of New York State (NYS). These PASs were also measured in the livers of two species of sport fish (n = 66) from 20 inland lakes in NYS. Finally, perfluorinated compounds were measured in the livers of 10 species of waterfowl (n = 87) from the Niagara River region in NYS. PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHS) were ubiquitous in NYS waters. PFOA was typically found at higher concentrations than were PFOS and PFHS. Elevated concentrations of PFOS were found in surface waters of Lake Onondaga, and elevated concentrations of PFOA were found in the Hudson River. PFOS was the most abundant perfluorinated compound in all fish and bird samples. PFOS concentrations in the livers of fishes ranged from 9 to 315 ng/g wet weight. PFOS, PFOA, and PFOSA (perfluorooctanesulfonamide) concentrations in smallmouth and largemouth bass (taken together) caught in remote mountain lakes with no known point sources of PAS contamination were 14 to 207, < 1.5 to 6.1, and < 1.5 to 9.8 ng/g wet weight, respectively. PFOS concentrations in the livers of birds ranged from 11 to 882 ng/g wet weight. PFOS concentrations were 2.5-fold greater (p = 0.001) in piscivorous birds than in non-piscivorous birds. However, PFOA, PFOSA, and PFHS were not found in bird livers. Overall, average concentrations of PFOS in fish were 8850-fold greater than those in surface water. An average biomagnification factor of 8.9 was estimated for PFOS in common merganser relative to that in fish. This study highlights the significance of dietary fish in PFOS accumulation in the food chain. Furthermore, our results provide information on the distribution of PASs in natural waters, fish, and several bird species in NYS.

Aquatic ecosystems have received mercury released from anthropogenic sources. The northeast region of North America is at especially high risk because of local and regional emission sources, prevailing wind patterns, and certain hydrological and biogeochemical features. Here we examine regional variation in total mercury (Hg) in brain, liver, and fur from otter and mink collected across New York, New England, and Nova Scotia. Gender and age are examined as factors potentially affecting Hg tissue levels. In addition, temporal relationships are analyzed for New York as well as correlative relationships for tissues from Maine. Animals were collected from 1982 to 2003, mostly from licensed trappers. Liver was the only tissue from otter that exhibited significant regional variation (New York versus Maine) in Hg concentration. Mercury concentration was significantly related to age but not to gender for otter. All tissues in mink exhibited significant, but inconsistent, regional variation in total Hg concentration, with the highest mean Hg concentration in liver samples from Massachusetts/Connecticut. Female mink had significantly greater Hg concentrations in liver than males. Total Hg concentration in the liver of both otter and mink from New York decreased significantly with time. Correlations among tissues for Hg concentration were stronger for male and female mink and male otter than female otter from Maine.

We determined age-dependent changes in plasma and brain cholinesterase (ChE) activity for two species of passerines: house wren (Troglodytes aedon) and European starling (Sturnus vulgaris, starling). In plasma from nestlings of both species, total ChE activity increased with age, acetycholinesterase (AChE, EC 3.1.1.7) activity declined rapidly immediately after hatching, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE, EC 3.1.1.8) activity increased steadily. For both species, total ChE and BChE activities and the BChE:AChE ratio in plasma were significantly greater in adults than nestlings suggesting trends observed in nestlings continue post fledging. In older nestlings and adults, AChE activity in plasma was significantly greater and BChE:AChE ratio less in house wrens than starlings. For house wrens as compared with starlings, ChE activity in brain increased at a significantly greater rate with age in nestlings and was significantly greater in adults. However, ChE activity in brain was similar at fledging for both species suggesting that the increase in ChE in brain is more directly related to ontogeny than chronologic age in nestlings of passerines. For both species, ChE activity increased significantly with brain weight of nestlings but not adults. House wrens hold similar patterns of age-dependent change in ChE activity in common with starlings but also exhibit differences in AChE activity in plasma that should be considered as a factor potentially affecting their relative toxicologic response to ChE inhibitors.

The impact of the herbicide, hexazinone, was assessed on aquatic macrophytes, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrate communities within forested watersheds in the Piedmont region of Georgia. Four replicate watersheds received hexazinone on April 23, 1979, and were subsequently monitored for eight months. Residue levels in terrestrial invertebrates were a maximum of two orders of magnitude greater than comparable levels (0.01 to 0.18 ppm) found in forest floor material. Aquatic organisms in a second order perennial stream were exposed to intermittent concentrations of hexazinone (6 to 44 ppb). Hexazinone and its metabolites were generally not detected (less than 0.1 ppm) in aquatic invertebrates and macrophytes. No major alterations in species composition or diversity were detected in the aquatic macroinvertebrate community. Terrestrial microarthropod samples collected near the end of the study period revealed no major community changes.