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Background.: Co-morbid depression is common in people with tuberculosis (TB). Symptoms of depression (low energy, impaired concentration, decreased motivation and hopelessness) may affect help-seeking; however, this impact has not been studied so far. The objectives of this study were to assess the impact of co-morbid depression on diagnostic delay, pathways to care, and to identify if it mediates other factors associated with diagnostic delay. Methods.: We analyzed cross-sectional data collected from 592 adults with newly diagnosed TB. We assessed probable depression using Patient Health Questionnaire, nine items (PHQ-9) at a cut-off 10. Data on diagnosis delay, pathways to TB care, socio-demographic variables, stigma, types of TB, substance use, co-morbid chronic illnesses, and perception about TB were assessed using a structured questionnaire. Generalized structural equation modelling was used to analyze the data. Results.: A total of 313 (52.9%) participants had probable depression. Pathway to TB care was direct for 512 (86.5%) of the participants and indirect for 80 (13.5%) of them. The median diagnosis delay was 12.0 weeks. Depression did not have a statistically significant association with pathways to TB care (β = −0.45; 95% CI−1.85 to 0.96) or diagnostic delay [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.90; 0.77–1.06]. Indirect pathway to TB care was positively associated with diagnosis delay (AOR = 2.72; 95% CI 1.25–5.91). Conclusions.: People with TB who had co-morbid probable depression visited the modern health care as directly as and as soon as those without co-morbid depression. How socio-demographic factors influence pathways to care and diagnosis delay require qualitative exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: With increasing life expectancy and rapid ageing, there is an expanding number of older people who have functional declines, greater needs for care and support and who are at increased risk of insufficient social interaction. Longitudinal investigations on the interplay between loneliness, social isolation and care dependence remain limited. This study thus aimed to investigate the longitudinal reciprocal association between social isolation/loneliness and care dependence among older adults in Latin America and China., Methods: We analysed data from the population-based cohorts from the 10/66 Dementia Research Group (DRG) project (baseline 2003-07 and follow-up 2007-2010). The 10/66 DRG study recruited and followed up older adults aged 65 years or above in 11 catchment areas in Latin America and China. A total of 15,027 older adults from Latin America and China (mean age = 73.5, standard deviation = 6.5) were included in our analyses. Cross-lagged panel models were used to investigate potential reciprocal associations., Results: Loneliness was positively associated with care dependence at baseline (β = 0.11, p < 0.001 in Latin America; β = 0.16, p < 0.05 in China]. Social isolation consistently had a stronger positive association with care dependence across all study sites in both waves. Longitudinally, care dependence positively predicted loneliness (β = 0.10, p < 0.001) and social isolation (β = 0.05, p < 0.001) in Latin American study sites but not in China. Yet there was no statistical evidence of lagged effects of loneliness and social isolation on care dependence in all study countries., Conclusions: Older people with care dependence are at risk of developing loneliness and social isolation. It is crucial to develop complex care models using a societal approach to address social and care needs holistically, especially for the older group with declining functional capacity. Future longitudinal research is required to explore the causal mechanisms of relationships and cultural differences, in order to inform the development of culturally appropriate care models., (© 2024 The Author(s). International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Unmet health needs have the potential to capture health inequality. Nevertheless, the course of healthcare needs fulfilment, and the role of multimorbidity in this process remains unclear. This study assessed the bidirectional transitions between met and unmet health needs and the transition to death and examined the effect of multimorbidity on transitions., Methods: This study was based on the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, a nationally representative survey in 2011-2015 among 18 075 participants aged 45 and above (average age 61.1; SD 9.9). We applied a multistate survival model to estimate the probabilities and the instantaneous risk of state transitions, and Gompertz hazard models were fitted to estimate the total, marginal and state-specific life expectancies (LEs)., Results: Living with physical multimorbidity (HR=1.85, 95% CI 1.58 to 2.15) or physical-mental multimorbidity (HR=1.45, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.82) was associated with an increased risk of transitioning into unmet healthcare needs compared with no multimorbidity. Conversely, multimorbidity groups had a decreased risk of transitioning out of unmet needs. Multimorbidity was also associated with shortened total life expectancy (TLEs), and the proportion of marginal LE for having unmet needs was more than two times higher than no multimorbidity., Conclusion: Multimorbidity aggravates the risk of transitioning into having unmet healthcare needs in the middle and later life, leading to a notable reduction in TLEs, with longer times spent with unmet needs. Policy inputs on developing integrated person-centred services and specifically scaling up to target the complex health needs of ageing populations need to be in place., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Background: 98% of people with surgical conditions living in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) do not receive safe, timely and affordable surgical and anesthesia care. Research exploring barriers to receiving care has tended to be narrow in focus, often facility-based and ignoring the community beliefs, experiences and behaviours that will be an essential component of closing the gap in surgical care. Using qualitative methods, we captured diverse community perspectives in rural Ethiopia: exploring beliefs, perceptions, knowledge and experiences related to surgical conditions, with the overall aim of (re)constructing explanatory models., Methods: Our study was nested within a community-based survey of surgical conditions conducted in the Butajira Health and Demographic Surveillance Site, southern Ethiopia, and a follow-up study of people accessing surgical care in two local hospitals. We carried out 24 semi-structured interviews. Participants were community members who needed but did/did not access surgical care, community-based healthcare workers and traditional bone-setters. Interviews were conducted in Amharic, audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated into English. We initially carried out thematic analysis and we recognized that emerging themes were aligned with Kleinman's explanatory models framework and decided to use this to guide the final stages of analysis., Results: We found that community members primarily understood surgical conditions according to severity. We identified two categories: conditions you could live with and those which required urgent care, with the latter indicating a clear and direct path to surgical care whilst the former was associated with a longer, more complex and experimental pattern of help-seeking. Fear of surgery and poverty disrupted help-seeking, whilst community narratives based on individual experiences fed into the body of knowledge people used to inform decisions about care., Conclusions: We found explanatory models to be flexible, responsive to new evidence about what might work best in the context of limited community resources. Our findings have important implications for future research and policy, suggesting that community-level barriers have the potential to be responsive to carefully designed interventions which take account of local knowledge and beliefs., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Loneliness is understood as a subjective experience resulting from unmet social relationship expectations. As most loneliness research has been conducted in higher-income-countries, there is limited understanding of loneliness in relation to diverse cultural, economic, and socio-political factors. To address this gap, the present review systematically synthesises existing qualitative studies on the experience of loneliness and social relationship expectations in lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Between June and July 2022, six online databases (Embase, Ovid Medline, APA PsycINFO, Global Health, Web of Science, Google Scholar) were searched for peer-reviewed studies from LMICs on loneliness using qualitative methods. There were no restrictions on publication date, language, or study setting. Studies that solely focused on social isolation or were conducted with children (<16 years) were excluded. Risk of bias was assessed with the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme. After deduplication, a total of 7866 records were identified and screened for inclusion, resulting in 24 studies published between 2002 and 2022. The included studies represent data from 728 participants in 15 countries across West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Niger, Mali), East Africa (Uganda, Kenya), North Africa (Egypt), West Asia (Iran), South Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) and Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines). Data were analysed combining inductive and deductive coding, summarised using narrative synthesis, and examined by geographical region. Common features of loneliness included rejection, overthinking, and pain. Loneliness was related to depression across regions. Whereas loneliness tended to be distinguished from social isolation in studies from Africa, it tended to be related with being alone in studies from Asia. Poverty and stigma were common barriers to fulfilling social relationship expectations. This review illustrates how loneliness and expectations are contextually embedded, with some expectations possibly being specific to a certain culture or life stage, having implications for assessment of and interventions for loneliness worldwide., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Older adults contribute vast amounts of care to society, yet it remains unclear how unpaid productive activities relate to loneliness. The objective of this systematic review is to synthesise the evidence for associations between midlife and older people's unpaid productive activities (i.e., spousal and grandparental caregiving, volunteering) and loneliness., Methods: Peer-reviewed observational articles that investigated the association between loneliness and caregiving or volunteering in later life (>50 years) were searched on electronic databases (Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, PsychInfo and Global Health) from inception until July 2021. Studies were analysed using narrative synthesis and assessed for methodological quality applying the Newcastle Ottawa Scale., Results: A total of 28 articles from 21 countries with 191,652 participants were included (52.5% women). Results were separately discussed for the type of unpaid productive activity, namely, general caregiving ( N  = 10), spousal caregiving ( N  = 7), grandparental caregiving ( N  = 7), and volunteering ( N  = 6). Risk of bias assessments revealed a moderate to high quality of included studies. Loneliness was positively associated with spousal caregiving but negatively associated with caregiving to grandchildren and volunteering., Conclusions: Grandparental caregiving and volunteering may be promising avenues for reducing loneliness in older age. Future studies will need to distinguish between different types of caregiving and volunteering and explore more complex longitudinal designs with diverse samples to investigate causal relationships with loneliness.

Loneliness is an experience resulting from a perceived discrepancy between expected and actual social relationships. Although this discrepancy is widely considered the "core mechanism" of loneliness, previous research and interventions have not sufficiently addressed what older adults specifically expect from their social relationships. To address this gap and to help situate research on older adults' loneliness within broader life span developmental theories, we propose a theoretical framework that outlines six key social relationship expectations of older adults based on research from psychology, gerontology, and anthropology: availability of social contacts, receiving care and support, intimacy and understanding, enjoyment and shared interests, generativity and contribution, and being respected and valued. We further argue that a complete understanding of loneliness across the life span requires attention to the powerful impacts of contextual factors (e.g., culture, functional limitations, social network changes) on the expression and fulfillment of older adults' universal and age-specific relationship expectations. The proposed Social Relationship Expectations Framework may fruitfully inform future loneliness research and interventions for a heterogeneous aging population.

Available evidence in Africa suggests that the prevalence of depression in primary care settings is high but it often goes unrecognized. In this study, we explored how depression is conceptualized and communicated among community members and primary care attendees diagnosed with depression in rural Ethiopia with the view to informing the development of interventions to improve detection. We conducted individual interviews with purposively selected primary care attendees with depression (n = 28; 16 females and 12 males) and focus group discussions (FGDs) with males, females, and priests (n = 21) selected based on their knowledge of their community. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. None of the community members identified depression as a mental illness. They considered depressive symptoms presented in a vignette as part of a normal reaction to the stresses of life. They considered medical intervention only when the woman's condition in the vignette deteriorated and "affected her mind." In contrast, participants with depression talked about their condition as illness. Symptoms spontaneously reported by these participants only partially matched symptoms listed in the current diagnostic criteria for depressive disorders. In all participants' accounts, spiritual explanations and traditional healing were prominent. The severity of symptoms mediates the decision to seek medical help. Improved detection may require an understanding of local conceptualizations in order to negotiate an intervention that is acceptable to affected people.

Objective: To explore hospital-level care for pre-eclampsia in Ethiopia, considering the perspectives of those affected and healthcare providers, in order to understand barriers and facilitators to early detection, care escalation and appropriate management., Setting: A primary and a general hospital in southern Ethiopia., Participants: Women with lived experience of pre-eclampsia care in the hospital, families of women deceased due to pre-eclampsia, midwives, doctors, integrated emergency surgical officers and healthcare managers., Results: This study identified numerous systemic barriers to provision of quality, person-centred care for pre-eclampsia in hospitals. Individual staff efforts to respond to maternal emergencies were undermined by a lack of consistency in availability of resources and support. The ways in which policies were applied exacerbated inequities in care. Staff improvised as a means of managing with limited material or human resources and knowledge. Social hierarchies and punitive cultures challenged adequacy of communication with women, documentation of care given and supportive environments for quality improvement., Conclusions: Quality care for pre-eclampsia requires organisational change to create a safe space for learning and improvement, alongside efforts to offer patient-centred care and ensure providers are equipped with knowledge, resources and support to adhere to evidence-based practice., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Purpose: Previous research suggests unipolar mania, i.e., bipolar disorder without depression, to be more common in low-income countries. However, longitudinal population-based studies on unipolar mania from low-income countries are lacking. This study therefore examined unipolar mania, in Butajira, Ethiopia, and associations with possible determinants., Methods: Key informants and 68,378 screenings with the Composite International Diagnostic Interviews (CIDI 2.1) identified suspected cases of bipolar disorder. Diagnosis was confirmed using the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN 2.1) (n = 2,285). 315 participants with bipolar disorder were recruited and followed up for an average of 2.5 years. Unipolar mania was defined when illness episodes consisted of at least two manic relapses. 240 cases had sufficient data to ascertain course of disorder., Results: 41.7% (100 of 240 cases) of participants had unipolar mania. Unipolar mania was associated with less suicidal ideation (0% vs. 26.4%, p < 0.001), less suicidal thoughts (occasionally/often: 1%/3% vs. 19.6%/21%, p < 0.001), and less history of suicide attempt (2% vs. 11.6%, p = 0.01). The participants with unipolar mania tended to have better social functioning (OR = 2.05, p = 0.07) and less alcohol use (20.8% vs. 31.4%, p = 0.07). The study was partly based on retrospective data liable to recall bias. Some cases defined as unipolar mania in our study may later develop depression., Conclusion: Previous cross-sectional studies finding high proportions of unipolar mania in low-income countries appear supported. Unipolar mania trended towards better social functioning and was associated with lower suicidality. Future unipolar mania specifications could inform treatment and prognostic estimates of bipolar disorder., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Individuals from minority ethnic groups in the UK are thought to be at higher risk of developing dementia while facing additional barriers to receiving timely care. However, few studies in the UK have examined if there are ethnic disparities in survival once individuals receive a dementia diagnosis., Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using electronic health record data of individuals diagnosed with dementia from a large secondary mental healthcare provider in London. Patients from Black African, Black Caribbean, South Asian, White British, and White Irish ethnic backgrounds were followed up for a 10-year period between 01 January 2008 and 31 December 2017. Data were linked to death certificate data from the Office of National Statistics to determine survival from dementia diagnosis. Standardised mortality ratios were calculated to estimate excess deaths in each ethnicity group as compared to the gender- and age-standardised population of England and Wales. We used Cox regression models to compare survival after dementia diagnosis across each ethnicity group., Results: Mortality was elevated at least twofold across all ethnicity groups with dementia compared to the general population in England and Wales. Risk of death was lower in Black Caribbean, Black African, White Irish, and South Asian groups as compared to the White British population, even after adjusting for age, gender, neighbourhood-level deprivation, indicators of mental and physical comorbidities. Risk of death remained lower after additionally accounting for those who emigrated out of the cohort., Conclusions: While mortality in dementia is elevated across all ethnic groups as compared to the general population, reasons for longer survival in minority ethnic groups in the UK as compared to the White British group are unclear and merit further exploration. Implications of longer survival, including carer burden and costs, should be considered in policy and planning to ensure adequate support for families and carers of individuals with dementia., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Contributing to society constitutes an essential part of healthy ageing. To date, however, it remains unclear how valuable contributions such as caregiving and volunteering, also described as unpaid productive activities, are related to older adults' loneliness. The present longitudinal study addresses this question in a lower-middle-income country, in Indonesia., Methods: Using data from two waves of the nationally representative Indonesian Family Life Survey (2000-2014), logistic regression models were applied with caregiving (to non-resident children, siblings, and parents) and volunteering (1-99 h, >100 h per year) as predictors and loneliness as outcome. Participants who were <50 years old and felt lonely at baseline were excluded. Results are reported as odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI)., Results: Of the 3,572 participants (52.8% women; Mean age: 60 years), 538 (15.1%) developed loneliness. In the unadjusted model, volunteering 1-99 h per year and caregiving to parents were each associated with a lower likelihood of feeling lonely later in life. For moderate volunteering (1-99 h), participating in the volunteer decision-making process was beneficial for loneliness. After adjusting for covariates, only the association between caregiving to parents and loneliness remained significant (OR=0.48, 95%CI: 0.27-0.81, p = 0.01). Specifically, providing care to parents who did not need help with daily activities was associated with lower loneliness., Conclusion: This longitudinal study addresses important research gaps in the literature on global healthy ageing, as it relates to the protective role of older adults' unpaid productive activities on loneliness in Indonesia., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interests The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Caregivers have become older as longevity increases. Caregiving for older people can cause burdens and psychological morbidity, which are the chronic stresses perceived by informal caregivers. This study aimed to compare the levels of care burden and psychological morbidity between older and younger caregivers in low- and middle-income countries. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Peru, Venezuela, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and China. Data were collected by the 10/66 Dementia Research Group. The Zarit Burden Inventory was used to measure the levels of burden on caregivers. Psychological morbidity was assessed through the Self-Reporting Questionnaire. Data from 1348 households in which informal caregivers provided home care for one older person were included in the analysis. Multivariable logistic regression was used to investigate the effects of caregiver age upon care burden and psychological morbidity. A fixed-effect meta-analysis model was used to obtain a pooled estimate of the overall odds ratios of each country. The unadjusted and the adjusted model for potential covariates revealed no significant difference in care burden and psychological morbidity between older caregivers and younger caregivers. The adjusted pooled estimates, however, indicated a lower psychological morbidity among older caregivers (OR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.41-0.93, I 2 = 0.0%). The demographic implications of caregiver age may suggest different policy responses across low- and middle-income countries.

Background: Depression is one of the commonest mental disorders in primary care but is poorly identified. The objective of this review was to determine the level of detection of depression by primary care clinicians and its determinants in studies from low- to middle-income countries (LMICs)., Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using PubMed, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, EMBASE, LILAC, and AJOL with no restriction of year of publication. Risk of bias within studies was evaluated with the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP). "Gold standard" diagnosis for the purposes of this review was based on the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9; cutoff scores of 5 and 10), other standard questionnaires and interview scales or expert diagnosis. Meta-analysis was conducted excluding studies on special populations. Analyses of pooled data were stratified by diagnostic approaches., Results: A total of 3159 non-duplicate publications were screened. Nine publications, 2 multi-country studies, and 7 single-country studies, making 12 country-level reports, were included. Overall methodological quality of the studies was good. Depression detection was 0.0% in four of the twelve reports and < 12% in another five. PHQ-9 was the main tool used: the pooled detection in two reports that used PHQ-9 at a cutoff point of 5 (combined sample size = 1426) was 3.9% (95% CI = 2.3%, 5.5%); in four reports that used PHQ-9 cutoff score of 10 (combined sample size = 5481), the pooled detection was 7.0% (95% CI = 3.9%, 10.2%). Severity of depression and suicidality were significantly associated with detection., Conclusions: While the use of screening tools is an important limitation, the extremely low detection of depression by primary care clinicians poses a serious threat to scaling up mental healthcare in LMICs. Interventions to improve detection should be prioritized., Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO CRD42016039704 ., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Unmet healthcare needs have increasingly been recognised as an indicator of equity of healthcare access and utilisation, having the potential to capture frailty of health and social protection systems., Objectives: This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of unmet healthcare needs and its correlates among middle-aged and older adults in China., Methods: This study is based on analyses of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study carried out in 2011 among Chinese adults aged 45 years and above. Multivariable logistic regression models were conducted to examine associated factors, stratified by rural or urban residence. Reasons for having unmet needs for inpatient and outpatient services were also analysed., Results: Among 14,774 participants, the prevalence of unmet healthcare needs was 13.0% (95% confidence interval 12.3-13.8%) and was higher in rural areas. The most prevalent reasons for unmet need for inpatient and outpatient care were 'not enough money' and 'illness is not serious, don't need treatment', respectively. The respondents who were unmarried, employed, had poor self-reported health, needed help with activities of daily living, reported lower life satisfaction, multiple chronic conditions and depressive symptoms had increased odds of unmet healthcare needs., Conclusion: This study suggests that unmet healthcare needs are more concentrated among people living with multiple health conditions and mental health problems in China. If universal health coverage goals and sustainable development goal 3 are to be met, it is essential that effective mechanisms for addressing unmet healthcare needs are identified., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The objective of this research was to systematically review and synthesize quantitative studies that assessed the association between socioeconomic inequalities and primary health care (PHC) utilization among older people living in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs). Six databases were searched, including Embase, Medline, Psych Info, Global Health, Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS), and China National Knowledge Infrastructure, CNKI, to identify eligible studies. A narrative synthesis approach was used for evidence synthesis. A total of 20 eligible cross-sectional studies were included in this systematic review. The indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) identified included income level, education, employment/occupation, and health insurance. Most studies reported that higher income, higher educational levels and enrollment in health insurance plans were associated with increased PHC utilization. Several studies suggested that people who were unemployed and economically inactive in older age or who had worked in formal sectors were more likely to use PHC. Our findings suggest a pro-rich phenomenon of PHC utilization in older people living in LMICs, with results varying by indicators of SES and study settings.

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) has reframed health and healthcare for older people around achieving the goal of healthy ageing. The recent WHO Integrated Care for Older People (ICOPE) guidelines focus on maintaining intrinsic capacity, i.e., addressing declines in neuromusculoskeletal, vitality, sensory, cognitive, psychological, and continence domains, aiming to prevent or delay the onset of dependence. The target group with 1 or more declines in intrinsic capacity (DICs) is broad, and implementation may be challenging in less-resourced settings. We aimed to inform planning by assessing intrinsic capacity prevalence, by characterising the target group, and by validating the general approach-testing hypotheses that DIC was consistently associated with higher risks of incident dependence and death., Methods and Findings: We conducted population-based cohort studies (baseline, 2003-2007) in urban sites in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela, and rural and urban sites in Peru, Mexico, India, and China. Door-knocking identified eligible participants, aged 65 years and over and normally resident in each geographically defined catchment area. Sociodemographic, behaviour and lifestyle, health, and healthcare utilisation and cost questionnaires, and physical assessments were administered to all participants, with incident dependence and mortality ascertained 3 to 5 years later (2008-2010). In 12 sites in 8 countries, 17,031 participants were surveyed at baseline. Overall mean age was 74.2 years, range of means by site 71.3-76.3 years; 62.4% were female, range 53.4%-67.3%. At baseline, only 30% retained full capacity across all domains. The proportion retaining capacity fell sharply with increasing age, and declines affecting multiple domains were more common. Poverty, morbidity (particularly dementia, depression, and stroke), and disability were concentrated among those with DIC, although only 10% were frail, and a further 9% had needs for care. Hypertension and lifestyle risk factors for chronic disease, and healthcare utilisation and costs, were more evenly distributed in the population. In total, 15,901 participants were included in the mortality cohort (2,602 deaths/53,911 person-years of follow-up), and 12,939 participants in the dependence cohort (1,896 incident cases/38,320 person-years). One or more DICs strongly and independently predicted incident dependence (pooled adjusted subhazard ratio 1.91, 95% CI 1.69-2.17) and death (pooled adjusted hazard ratio 1.66, 95% CI 1.49-1.85). Relative risks were higher for those who were frail, but were also substantially elevated for the much larger sub-groups yet to become frail. Mortality was mainly concentrated in the frail and dependent sub-groups. The main limitations were potential for DIC exposure misclassification and attrition bias., Conclusions: In this study we observed a high prevalence of DICs, particularly in older age groups. Those affected had substantially increased risks of dependence and death. Most needs for care arose in those with DIC yet to become frail. Our findings provide some support for the strategy of optimising intrinsic capacity in pursuit of healthy ageing. Implementation at scale requires community-based screening and assessment, and a stepped-care intervention approach, with redefined roles for community healthcare workers and efforts to engage, train, and support them in these tasks. ICOPE might be usefully integrated into community programmes for detecting and case managing chronic diseases including hypertension and diabetes., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objectives: ASSET (Health System Strengthening in sub-Saharan Africa) is a health system strengthening (HSS) programme involving eight work-packages (ie, a research study that addresses a specific need for HSS) that aims to develop solutions that support high-quality care. Here we present the protocol for the implementation science (IS) theme within ASSET (ASSET-ImplmentER) that aims to understand what HSS interventions work, for whom and how, and how IS methodologies can be adapted to improve the HSS interventions within resource-poor contexts., Settings: Publicly funded health facilities in rural and urban areas in in Ethiopia, South Africa, Sierra Leone, and Zimbabwe., Participants: Research staff including principal investigators, coinvestigators, field staff, PhD students, and research assistants., Interventions: Work-packages use a mixed-methods effectiveness-effectiveness hybrid designs. At the end of the pre-implementation phase, a workshop is held whereby the IS theme, jointly with ASSET work-packages apply IS determinant frameworks to research findings to identify factors that influence the effectiveness of delivering evidence-informed care. Determinants are used to select a set of HSS interventions for further evaluation, where work-packages also theorise selective mechanisms. In the piloting and rolling implementation phase , work-packages pilot the HSS interventions. An iterative process then begins involving evaluation, reflection and adaptation. Throughout this phase, IS determinant frameworks are applied to monitor and identify barriers/enablers to implementation. Selective mechanisms of action are also investigated. Implementation outcomes are evaluated using qualitative and quantitative methods. The psychometric properties of outcome measures including acceptability, appropriateness and feasibility are also evaluated. In a final workshop, work-packages come together, to reflect and explore the utility of the selected IS methods and provide suggestions for future use.Structured templates are used to organise and analyse common and heterogeneous patterns across work-packages. Qualitative data are analysed using thematic analysis and quantitative data are analysed using means and proportions., Conclusions: We use a novel combination of IS methods at a programmatic level to facilitate comparisons of determinants and mechanisms that influence the effectiveness of HSS interventions in achieving implementation outcomes across different contexts. The study also contributes conceptual development and clarification at the underdeveloped interface of IS, HSS and global health.The ASSET-ImplementER theme is considered minimal risk as we only interview researchers involved in the different work-packages. To this effect we have received approval from King's College London Ethics Committee for research that is considered minimal risk (Reference number: MRA-20/21-21772)., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: This study was designed to explore prevalence and correlates of self-reported loneliness and to investigate whether loneliness predicts mortality among older adults (aged 65 or above) in Latin America, China and India. Methods: The study investigated population-based cross-sectional (2003-2007) and longitudinal surveys (follow-up 2007-2010) from the 10/66 Dementia Research Group project. Poisson regression and Cox regression analyses were conducted to analyse correlates of loneliness and its association with mortality. Results: The standardised prevalence of loneliness varied between 25.3 and 32.4% in Latin America and was 18.3% in India. China showed a low prevalence of loneliness (3.8%). In pooled meta-analyses, there was robust evidence to support an association between loneliness and mortality across Latin American countries (HR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.01-1.26, I 2 = 10.1%) and China (HR = 1.58, 95% CI 1.03-2.41), but there were no associations in India. Conclusion: Our findings suggest potential cultural variances may exist in the concept of loneliness in older age. The effect of loneliness upon mortality is consistent across different cultural settings excluding India. Loneliness should therefore be considered as a potential dimension of public health among older populations., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Gao, Prina, Prince, Acosta, Luisa Sosa, Guerra, Huang, Jimenez-Velazquez, Llibre Rodriguez, Salas, Williams, Liu, Acosta Castillo and Mayston.)

Rationale: Little is known about the specific experience people living with bipolar disorder in rural, low resource settings, where conditions that disrupt normal social interactions are often highly stigmatized and evidence-based treatments are rare., Objective: To explore illness experience, coping strategies, help-seeking practices, and consequences of illness among people with bipolar disorder (PBD) and their family members in rural Ethiopia as an initial step for developing psychosocial intervention grounded by the experiences of PBD., Method: A qualitative methods using in-depth interviews were carried out with 27 individuals (15 PBD and 12 caregivers). The participants were identified on the basis of previous community-based research among people with severe mental illness. Interviews were carried out in Amharic, audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated into English. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Our approach was informed by phenomenological theory., Result: Three major themes emerged: expressions and experiences of illness, managing self and living with otherness, and the costs of affliction. PBD and caregivers were concerned by different forewarnings of illness. Stigma and social exclusion were entwined in a vicious cycle that shaped both illness experience and the economic health and social life of the household. Nonetheless, PBD and caregivers learned from their experiences, developed coping strategies, and sought relief from trusted relationships, spirituality, and medication., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that psychosocial intervention could be used to strengthen existing resources, in order to improve the lives of PBD and their family members. However, pervasive stigma may be a barrier to group and peer support approaches., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Although some studies have suggested that women with schizophrenia are more likely to achieve positive outcomes, the evidence-base is fraught with inconsistencies. In this study we compare the long-term course and outcomes for men and women living with schizophrenia in rural Ethiopia., Methods: The Butajira course and outcome study for severe mental disorders is a population-based cohort study. Community ascertainment of cases was undertaken between 1998 and 2001, with diagnostic confirmation by clinicians using the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry. Findings from annual outcome assessments were combined with clinical records, patient and caregiver report, and psychiatric assessments at 10-13 years using the Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation- LIFE chart. For the sub-group of people with schizophrenia (n = 358), we compared course of illness and treatment, co-morbidity, recovery, social outcomes and mortality between men and women. Multivariable analyses were conducted for modelling associations identified in bivariate analyses according to blocks shaped by our a priori conceptual framework of the biological and social pathways through which gender might influence the course and outcome of schizophrenia., Results: Looking into over 10-13 years of follow-up data, there was no difference in the functioning or recovery in women compared to men (AOR = 1.79, 95% CI = 0.91, 3.57). Women were less likely to report overall life satisfaction (AOR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.09, 0.53) or good quality of spousal relationships (AOR = 0.09, 95% CI = 0.01-1.04). Men were more likely to have co-morbid substance use and there was a trend towards women being more likely to be prescribed an antidepressant (AOR = 2.38, 95% CI = 0.94, 5.88). There were no gender differences in the course of illness, number of psychotic episodes or adherence to medications., Conclusion: In this rural African setting, we found little evidence to support the global evidence indicating better course and outcome of schizophrenia in women. Our findings are suggestive of a gendered experience of schizophrenia which varies across contexts. Further investigation is needed due to the important implications for the development of new mental health services in low and middle-income country settings.

Debate about the cross-cultural relevance of depression has been central to cross-cultural psychiatry and global mental health. Although there is now a wealth of evidence pertaining to symptoms across different cultural settings, the role of the health system in addressing these problems remains contentious. Depression is undetected among people attending health facilities. We carried out a thematic synthesis of qualitative evidence published in the scientific literature from sub-Saharan Africa to understand how depression is debated, deployed and described. No date limits were set for inclusion of articles. Our results included 23 studies carried out in communities, among people living with HIV, attendees of primary healthcare and with healthcare workers and traditional healers. Included studies were carried out between 1995 and 2018. In most cases, depression was differentiated from 'madness' and seen to have its roots in social adversity, predominantly economic and relationship problems, sometimes entangled with HIV. Participants described the alienation that resulted from depression and a range of self-help and community resources utilised to combat this isolation. Both spiritual and biomedical causes, and treatment, were considered when symptoms were very severe and/or other possibilities had been considered and discarded. Context shaped narratives: people already engaged with the health system for another illness such as HIV were more likely to describe their depression in biomedical terms. Resolution of depression focussed upon remaking the life world, bringing the individual back to familiar rhythms, whether this was through the mechanism of encouraging socialisation, prayer, spiritual healing or biomedical treatment. Our findings suggest that it is essential that practitioners and researchers are fluent in local conceptualisations and aware of local resources to address depression. Design of interventions offered within the health system that are attuned to this are likely to be welcomed as an option among other resources available to people living with depression., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: Cross-sectional studies show that the prevalence of comorbid depression in people with tuberculosis (TB) is high. The hypothesis that TB may lead to depression has not been well studied. Our objectives were to determine the incidence and predictors of probable depression in a prospective cohort of people with TB in primary care settings in Ethiopia., Methods: We assessed 648 people with newly diagnosed TB for probable depression using Patient Health Questionnaire, nine-item (PHQ-9) at the time of starting their anti-TB medication. We defined PHQ-9 scores 10 and above as probable depression. Participants without baseline probable depression were assessed at 2 and 6 months to measure incidence of depression. Incidence rates per 1000-person months were calculated. Predictors of incident depression were identified using Poisson regression., Results: Two hundred and ninety-nine (46.1%) of the participants did not have probable depression at baseline. Twenty-two (7.4%) and 26 (8.7%) developed depression at 2 and 6 months of follow up. The incidence rate of depression between baseline and 2 months was 73.6 (95% CI 42.8-104.3) and between baseline and 6 months was 24.2 (95% CI 14.9-33.5) per 1000 person-months respectively. Female sex (adjusted β = 0.22; 95% CI 0.16-0.27) was a risk factor and perceived social support (adjusted β = -0.14; 95% CI -0.24 to -0.03) was a protective factor for depression onset., Conclusion: There was high incidence of probable depression in people undergoing treatment for newly diagnosed TB. The persistence and incidence of depression beyond 6 months need to be studied. TB treatment guidelines should have mental health component., (© The Author(s) 2020.)

Studies have suggested that in African countries, symptoms of cognitive decline are commonly seen as part of "normal ageing" or attributed to supernatural causes. The impact of folk beliefs about causality upon help-seeking is unclear. Likewise, there is a lack of evidence relating to how families cope with living with an older resident with dementia. Our study's aim was to explore the sociocultural beliefs, understandings, perceptions and behaviours relating to living with dementia in Kintampo, Ghana. We conducted in-depth interviews with a total of 28 people, using a series of case studies among 10 older people living with dementia and their families. Results revealed that symptoms of cognitive impairment were generally linked to inexorable bodily decline understood to be characteristic of "normal" ageing. Stigma was therefore perceived to be non-existent. Whilst managing the costs of care was often a challenge, care-giving was largely accepted as a filial duty, commonly shared among female residents of large compound households. Families experimented with biomedical and traditional medicine for chronic conditions they perceived to be treatable. Our findings suggest that whilst families offer a holistic approach to the needs of older people living with chronic conditions including dementia, health and social policies offer inadequate scaffolding to support this work. In the future, it will be important to develop policy frameworks that acknowledge the continued social and economic potential of older people and strengthen the existing approach of families, optimising the management of non-communicable diseases within primary care.

Background: Long-term functional schizophrenia outcomes are not well characterized in low-income environments because of the rarity of prospective studies., Objectives: To assess and describe long-term schizophrenia's functional outcomes and potential outcome predictors., Methods: Following a baseline assessment, 316 people with schizophrenia were studied for 10 years, on average. Of the total, 79 were incident cases: cases with onset of the illness occurring two years or less from entry into the study. SF-36 scores of physical and social functioning were used to assess functional outcomes. Linear mixed models were employed to evaluate the association of functioning with potential predictors., Results: Social and physical functioning scores regarding the cohort were lower than the population's norm for most of the follow-up period. Incident cases had better function than prevalent cases. Fifteen percent of incident and 30% of prevalent cases had reduced social functioning for at least six years. Declining symptom severity during the follow-up period was significantly associated with improvement in social functioning. When baseline functioning was controlled for, the long-term trend in functionality was not associated with demographic or illness characteristics (age and speed of onset, duration of illness and neuroleptic use at entry, substance use, and medication adherence)., Conclusion: Long-term physical and social functioning of the population with schizophrenia were significantly lower than the population norm. A significant proportion of the cohort had lower functioning for the long-term. Functioning was not associated with demographic or illness characteristics of the study population.

Background: In this review we discuss how the study of dementia epidemiology in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) has changed in the last 20 years, and specifically to review the evidence created by the 10/66 Dementia Research Group (DRG) and discuss future directions for research., Methods: We identified and collated all the papers related to the 10/66 Dementia Research Group, including papers from groups who adopted the 10/66 methodology, that have been published in peer-reviewed journals., Results: Over 200 papers including data from Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean were identified by this review. Many of the findings revolved around the epidemiology of dementia, mental health and non-communicable diseases, including the cross-cultural development and validation of measurement tools of cognition and functioning, need for care, care arrangements and mental health. Social ageing, care dependence and caregiver interventions were also topics that the group had published on., Discussion: A body of evidence has been generated that has challenged the view, prevalent when the group started, that dementia is comparatively rare in LMICs. The experience of the 10/66 DRG has shown that descriptive epidemiological research can be important and impactful, where few data exist. Monitoring population trends in the prevalence and incidence of dementia may be our best chance to confirm hypotheses regarding modifiable risk factors of dementia.

Our aim was to review the evidence related to the impact of co-morbid severe mental illness SMI (schizophrenia, schizoaffective and bipolar disorder) and HIV upon mental health, physical health and social outcomes. We carried out a systematic review of scientific evidence, searching online databases (MEDLINE, PsychInfo, EMBASE, Global Health and Scopus) for studies between 1983 and 2017 using search terms for SMI and HIV. Studies were included if they compared health or social outcomes between people living with co-morbid SMI and HIV and people living with either: a) HIV only; or b) SMI only. Outcomes of interest were: mortality, health service use, HIV/SMI-related, co-morbidities, and social outcomes. We identified 20 studies which met our inclusion criteria. Although studies were generally high quality, there was heterogeneity in both selection of outcomes and choice of measure. It was therefore difficult to draw strong conclusions regarding the impact of co-morbid SMI and HIV across any outcome. We found little evidence that co-morbid SMI and HIV were associated with lower levels of treatment, care or poorer clinical outcomes compared to people living with SMI or HIV alone. However, mortality appeared to be higher among the co-morbid group in three out of four analyses identified. Physical and mental co-morbidities and social outcomes were rarely measured. Limited data mean that the impact of co-morbid SMI and HIV is uncertain. In order to develop evidence-based guidelines, there is an urgent need for further research. This may be realized by exploring opportunities for using data from existing cohort studies, routinely collected data and data linkage to investigate important questions relating to this neglected but potentially important area.

Background: While links between disability and poverty are well established, there have been few longitudinal studies to clarify direction of causality, particularly among older adults in low and middle income countries. We aimed to study the effect of care dependence among older adult residents on the economic functioning of their households, in catchment area survey sites in Peru, Mexico and China., Methods: Households were classified from the evolution of the needs for care of older residents, over two previous community surveys, as 'incident care', 'chronic care' or 'no care', and followed up three years later to ascertain economic outcomes (household income, consumption, economic strain, satisfaction with economic circumstances, healthcare expenditure and residents giving up work or education to care)., Results: Household income did not differ between household groups. However, income from paid work (Pooled Count Ratio pCR 0.88, 95% CI 0.78-1.00) and government transfers (pCR 0.80, 95% CI 0.69-0.93) were lower in care households. Consumption was 12% lower in chronic care households (pCR 0.88, 95% CI 0.77-0.99). Household healthcare expenditure was higher (pCR 1.55, 95% CI 1.26-1.90), and catastrophic healthcare spending more common (pRR 1.64, 95% CI 1.64-2.22) in care households., Conclusions: While endogeneity cannot be confidently excluded as an explanation for the findings, this study indicates that older people's needs for care have a discernable impact on household economics, controlling for baseline indicators of long-term economic status. Although living, typically, in multigenerational family units, older people have not featured prominently in global health and development agendas. Population ageing will rapidly increase the number of households where older people live, and their societal significance. Building sustainable long-term care systems for the future will require some combination of improved income security in old age; incentivisation of informal care through compensation for direct and opportunity costs; and development of community care services to support, and, where necessary, supplement or substitute the central role of informal caregivers.

Objective: To investigate the association between comorbid depression and tuberculosis treatment outcomes, quality of life and disability in Ethiopia., Methods: The study involved 648 consecutive adults treated for tuberculosis at 14 primary health-care facilities. All were assessed at treatment initiation (i.e. baseline) and after 2 and 6 months. We defined probable depression as a score of 10 or above on the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire. Data on treatment default, failure and success and on death were obtained from tuberculosis registers. Quality of life was assessed using a visual analogue scale and we calculated disability scores using the World Health Organization's Disability Assessment Scale. Using multivariate Poisson regression analysis, we estimated the association between probable depression at baseline and treatment outcomes and death., Results: Untreated depression at baseline was independently associated with tuberculosis treatment default (adjusted risk ratio, aRR: 9.09; 95% confidence interval, CI: 6.72 to 12.30), death (aRR: 2.99; 95% CI: 1.54 to 5.78), greater disability ( β : 0.83; 95% CI: 0.67 to 0.99) and poorer quality of life ( β : -0.07; 95% CI: -0.07 to -0.06) at 6 months. Participants with probable depression had a lower mean quality-of-life score than those without (5.0 versus 6.0, respectively; P  < 0.001) and a higher median disability score (22.0 versus 14.0, respectively; P  < 0.001) at 6 months., Conclusion: Untreated depression in people with tuberculosis was associated with worse treatment outcomes, poorer quality of life and greater disability. Health workers should be given the support needed to provide depression care for people with tuberculosis.

Background: Exposure to endogenous estrogen may protect against dementia, but evidence remains equivocal. Such effects may be assessed more precisely in settings where exogenous estrogen administration is rare. We aimed to determine whether reproductive period (menarche to menopause), and other indicators of endogenous estrogen exposure are inversely associated with dementia incidence., Methods: Population-based cohort studies of women aged 65 years and over in urban sites in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Venezuela, and rural and urban sites in Peru, Mexico and China. Sociodemographic and risk factor questionnaires were administered to all participants, including ages at menarche, birth of first child, and menopause, and parity, with ascertainment of incident 10/66 dementia, and mortality, three to five years later., Results: 9,428 women participated at baseline, with 72-98% responding by site. The 'at risk' cohort comprised 8,466 dementia-free women. Mean age varied from 72.0 to 75.4 years, lower in rural than urban sites and in China than in Latin America. Mean parity was 4.1 (2.4-7.2 by site), generally higher in rural than urban sites. 6,854 women with baseline reproductive period data were followed up for 26,463 person years. There were 692 cases of incident dementia, and 895 dementia free deaths. Pooled meta-analysed fixed effects, per year, for reproductive period (Adjusted Sub-Hazard Ratio [ASHR] 1.001, 95% CI 0.988-1.015) did not support any association with dementia incidence, with no evidence for effect modification by APOE genotype. No association was observed between incident dementia and; ages at menarche, birth of first child, and menopause: nulliparity; or index of cumulative endogenous estrogen exposure. Greater parity was positively associated with incident dementia (ASHR 1.030, 95% CI 1.002-1.059, I2 = 0.0%)., Conclusions: We found no evidence to support the theory that natural variation in cumulative exposure to endogenous oestrogens across the reproductive period influences dementia incidence in late life.

Background: empirical evidence from high-income countries suggests that self-rated health (SRH) is useful as a brief and simple outcome measure in public health research. However, in many low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) there is a lack of evaluation and the cross-cultural validity of SRH remains largely untested. This study aims to explore the prevalence of SRH and its association with mortality in older adults in LMIC in order to cross-culturally validate the construct of SRH., Methods: population-based cohort studies including 16,940 persons aged ≥65 years in China, India, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Peru, Venezuela, Mexico and Puerto Rico in 2003. SRH was assessed by asking 'how do you rate your overall health in the past 30 days' with responses ranging from excellent to poor. Covariates included socio-demographic characteristics, use of health services and health factors. Mortality was ascertained through a screening of all respondents until 2007., Results: the prevalence of good SRH was higher in urban compared to rural sites, except in China. Men reported higher SRH than women, and depression had the largest negative impact on SRH in all sites. Without adjustment, those with poor SRH showed a 142% increase risk of dying within 4 years compared to those with moderate SRH. After adjusting for all covariates, those with poor SRH still showed a 43% increased risk., Conclusion: our findings support the use of SRH as a simple measure in survey settings to identify vulnerable groups and evaluate health interventions in resource-scares settings., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society.)

Purpose of the Study: Populations in Latin America, Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are rapidly ageing. The extent to which traditional systems of family support and security can manage the care of increased numbers of older people with chronic health problems is unclear. Our aim was to explore the social and economic effects of caring for an older dependent person, including insight into pathways to economic vulnerability., Design & Methods: We carried out a series of household case studies across urban and rural sites in Peru, Mexico, China and Nigeria (n = 24), as part of a cross-sectional study, nested within the 10/66 Dementia Research Group cohort. Case studies consisted of in-depth narrative style interviews (n = 60) with multiple family members, including the older dependent person., Results: Governments were largely uninvolved in the care and support of older dependent people, leaving families to negotiate a 'journey without maps'. Women were de facto caregivers but the traditional role of female relative as caregiver was beginning to be contested. Household composition was flexible and responsive to changing needs of multiple generations but family finances were stretched., Implications: Governments are lagging behind sociodemographic and social change. There is an urgent need for policy frameworks to support and supplement inputs from families. These should include community-based and residential care services, disability benefits and carers allowances. Further enhancement of health insurance schemes and scale-up of social pensions are an important component of bolstering the security of dependent older people and supporting their continued social and economic participation.

Background: Service satisfaction is integral to quality of care and measures are therefore considered important indicators of quality. Patient's responses to their experiences of using services are under-researched in the context of mental healthcare in low income countries. Our aim was to use mixed methods to develop a new measure of satisfaction for use among consumers of the new models of mental healthcare which are currently being scaled-up., Methods: We used qualitative methods to explore the concept of service satisfaction. On the basis of these findings, we developed a new 'Mental health service satisfaction scale' (MHSSS v0.0) by adapting existing measures of service satisfaction. We evaluated psychometric properties of the new measure, among a sample of service users with severe mental disorder (SMD) (n = 200) and caregivers (n = 200). Following expert review, a modified version of the measure was developed (MHSSS v1.0) and psychometric properties were examined with data from a second independent sample (n = 150 service users with SMD and n = 150 caregivers)., Results: Factors identified in analysis of the first quantitative sample coincide with core concepts of service satisfaction as reported in the literature and were reflected in the key themes which emerged from our qualitative study: interpersonal factors, efficacy, communication, technical competency and adequacy of facilities. There was generally consensus among caregivers and service users regarding dimensions of satisfaction. However there was evidence of some differences in prioritization. Revisions made to version 0.0 of the Mental Health Service Satisfaction Scale (MHSSS) led to an improved instrument, with excellent internal consistency, convergent validity and factor loadings indicative of a uni-dimensional construct., Conclusions: Our findings suggest that conceptions of service satisfaction among people accessing a service for SMD are broadly similar with those established in the literature. Our findings indicate that the MHSSS might be a useful candidate for inclusion in the new toolkit of measures needed to facilitate monitoring of service satisfaction which will be crucial to quality improvement.

Background: Understanding co-morbidity of depression and tuberculosis (TB) has been limited by challenges in measurement of depression due to overlapping symptoms, use of small hospital samples and uncontrolled analysis. This study was conducted to better understand the burden and presentation of depression, and associated factors in people with TB in primary care settings in Ethiopia., Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional survey among 657 people newly diagnosed with TB. Symptoms of depression were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). TB symptoms and other factors were captured using standardised questionnaires. The factor structure of PHQ-9 was examined. Multivariable analysis was carried out to estimate prevalence ratios., Results: The prevalence of probable depression was 54.0%. The PHQ-9 had one factor structure (alpha = 0.81). Little interest or pleasure in doing things (73.0%) was the commonest depressive symptom. Older age (Adjusted Prevalence ratio (APR) = 1.19; 95%CI = 1.06, 1.33), female sex (APR = 1.23; 95%CI = 1.18, 1.27), night sweating (APR = 1.25; 95%CI = 1.16, 1.35), pain (APR = 1.69; 95%CI = 1.24, 2.29), being underweight (APR = 1.10; 95%CI = 1.07, 1.13), duration of illness (APR = 1.35; 95%CI = 1.22, 1.50), level of education (APR = 0.93; 95%CI = 0.90, 0.95), and social support (APR = 0.89; 95%CI = 0.85, 0.93) were independently associated with probable depression., Conclusions: Depression appears highly prevalent in people with TB and PHQ-9 seems to be a useful instrument to detect depression in the context of TB. The frequency of depressive symptoms would suggest that the occurrence of the symptoms in people with TB is in the usual manifestation of the disorder. Prospective studies are needed to understand the longitudinal relationship between TB and depression.

Background: Despite recognition of the importance of timely presentation to HIV care, research on pathways to care is lacking. The adverse impact of depression upon adherence to antiretroviral therapy is established. There is emerging evidence to suggest depression may inhibit initial engagement with care. However, the effect of depression and other psychosocial factors upon the pathway to care is unknown., Methods: We used mixed methods to explore pathways to care of people accessing testing and treatment in Goa, India. Questionnaires including measures of common mental disorder, hazardous alcohol use, cognition and assessment of pathways to care (motivations for testing, time since they were first aware of this reason for testing, whether they had been advised to test, who had given this advice, time elapsed since this advice was given) were administered to 1934 participants at the time of HIV testing. Qualitative interviews were carried out with 15 study participants who attended the antiretroviral therapy treatment centre. Interview topic guides were designed to elicit responses that discussed barriers and facilitators of accessing testing and care., Results: Pathways were often long and complex. Quantitative findings revealed that Common Mental Disorder was associated with delayed testing when advised by a Doctor (the most common pathway to testing) (AOR = 6.18, 2.16-17.70). Qualitative results showed that triggers for testing (symptoms believed to be due to HIV, and for women, illness or death of their husband) suggested that poor health, rather than awareness of risk was a key stimulus for testing. The period immediately before and after diagnosis was characterised by distress and fear. Stigma was a prominent backdrop to narratives. However, once participants had made contact with care and support (HIV services and non-governmental organisations), these systems were often effective in alleviating fear and promoting confidence in treatment and self-efficacy., Conclusion: The effectiveness of formal and informal systems of support around the time of diagnosis in supporting people with mental disorder is unclear. Ways of enhancing these systems should be explored, with the aim of achieving timely presentation at HIV care for all those diagnosed with the disease.

Little is understood about the feasibility and acceptability of primary care-based models of task-sharing care for people with severe mental disorders (SMDs) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). A participatory planning approach was adopted in preparation for the transition from hospital-delivered psychiatric care for SMD to a primary care-based, task-sharing model in a rural Ethiopian community. In this article, we present findings from community consultation meetings (n = 4), focus group discussions (n = 7) and in-depth interviews (n = 11) with key stakeholders (healthcare administrators and providers, caregivers, service-users and community leaders) which were carried out over a 2-year period in the context of ongoing dialogue with the community. The principle of local delivery of mental health services was agreed upon by all stakeholder groups. Key reasons for supporting local delivery were increased access for the majority due to proximity, reduced cost and reduced stress related to transportation. However, acceptance of the new service was qualified by concerns about the competence of staff to deliver a comprehensive and dependable service of equal quality to that currently provided at the hospital. Adequate training and support, as well as ensuring consistency of medication supply were identified as key components to ensure success. Encouragingly, our results suggest that there is significant support for the service change and an interest for the mobilization of community resources to support this. One of the study strengths was that we were able to present the different perspectives of multiple stakeholder groups. By nesting the study in an ongoing community-based cohort of people with SMD we were able to interview a more representative and empowered group of caregivers and service users than is often available in LMICs. Despite this, the extent to which service-users are able to express their opinions is likely limited by their marginalized role in rural Ethiopian society., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Few data are available from middle income countries regarding economic circumstances of households in which older people live. Many such settings have experienced rapid demographic, social and economic change, alongside increasing pension coverage. Population-based household surveys in rural and urban catchment areas in Peru, Mexico and China. Participating households were selected from all households with older residents. Descriptive analyses were weighted back for sampling fractions and non-response. Household income and consumption were estimated from a household key informant interview. 877 Household interviews (3177 residents). Response rate 68 %. Household income and consumption correlated plausibly with other economic wellbeing indicators. Household Incomes varied considerably within and between sites. While multigenerational households were the norm, older resident's incomes accounted for a high proportion of household income, and older people were particularly likely to pool income. Differences in the coverage and value of pensions were a major source of variation in household income among sites. There was a small, consistent inverse association between household pension income and labour force participation of younger adult co-residents. The effect of pension income on older adults' labour force participation was less clear-cut. Historical linkage of social protection to formal employment may have contributed to profound late-life socioeconomic inequalities. Strategies to formalise the informal economy, alongside increases in the coverage and value of non-contributory pensions and transfers would help to address this problem.

Introduction: Depression is commonly comorbid with chronic physical illnesses and is associated with a range of adverse clinical outcomes. Currently, the literature on the role of depression in determining the course and outcome of tuberculosis (TB) is very limited., Aim: Our aim is to examine the relationship between depression and TB among people newly diagnosed and accessing care for TB in a rural Ethiopian setting. Our objectives are to investigate: the prevalence and determinants of probable depression, the role of depression in influencing pathways to treatment of TB, the incidence of depression during treatment, the impact of anti-TB treatment on the prognosis of depression and the impact of depression on the outcomes of TB treatment., Methods and Analysis: We will use a prospective cohort design. 703 newly diagnosed cases of TB (469 without depression and 234 with depression) will be consecutively recruited from primary care health centres. Data collection will take place at baseline, 2 and 6 months after treatment initiation. The primary exposure variable is probable depression measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Outcome variables include: pathways to treatment, classical outcomes for anti-TB treatment quality of life and disability. Descriptive statistics, logistic regression and multilevel mixed-effect analysis will be used to test the study hypotheses., Ethics and Dissemination: Ethical approval has been obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University. Findings will be disseminated through scientific publications, conference presentations, community meetings and policy briefs., Anticipated Impact: Findings will contribute to a sparse evidence base on comorbidity of depression and TB. We hope the dissemination of findings will raise awareness of comorbidity among clinicians and service providers, and contribute to ongoing debates regarding the delivery of mental healthcare in primary care in Ethiopia., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Objective: To investigate associations between background characteristics (psychosocial adversity, risk behaviours/perception of risk and HIV-related knowledge, perceptions and beliefs) and psychological and cognitive morbidity among people coming for testing for HIV/AIDS in Goa, India., Methods: Analysis of cross-sectional baseline data (plus HIV status) from a prospective cohort study. Participants were recruited at the time of coming for HIV testing., Results: Consistent with associations found among general population samples, among our sample of 1934 participants, we found that indicators of psychosocial adversity were associated with CMD (common mental disorder - major depression, generalised anxiety and panic disorder) among people coming for testing for HIV. Similarly, perpetration of intimate partner violence was associated with AUD (alcohol use disorder). Two STI symptoms were associated with CMD, and sex with a non-primary partner was associated with AUD. Suboptimal knowledge about HIV transmission and prevention was associated with low cognitive test scores. In contrast with other studies, we found no evidence of any association between stigma and CMD. There was no evidence of modification of associations by HIV status., Conclusions: Among people coming for testing for HIV/AIDS in Goa, India, we found that CMD occurred in the context of social and economic stressors (violence, symptoms of STI, poor education and food insecurity) and AUD was associated with violence and risky sexual behaviour. Further research is necessary to understand the role of gender, stigma and social norms in determining the relationship between sexual and mental health. Understanding associations between these background characteristics and psychological morbidity may help inform the design of appropriate early interventions for depression among people newly diagnosed HIV/AIDS., (© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)