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Three formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner subsp. kurstaki (Dipel 4L, Dipel 2X, and ABG-6167) were compared with the synthetic pyrethroid perrnethrin ( common name Pounce 3. 2 EC) for insecticidal activity and impact upon parasitism of the imported cabbageworrn, Pieris rapae (L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) in field broccoli (CV Packrnan) from fall 1986 to spring 1988. Perrnethrin, Dipel 4L, and ABG-6167 were not significantly different in their efficacy towards imported cabbageworm larvae. Parasitization of P. rapae by the larval parasite Cotesia glomerata (L.) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the pupal parasite Pteromalus puparum (L.) (Hyrnenoptera: Pteromalidae) continued after spraying in the B. thuringiensis plots, but was not significantly different from perrnethrin. However, 100% of the P. rapae chrysalids recovered were parasitized by P. puparum. The impact of seasonal hyperparasitism was compared between .Q. glomerata, and a Yugoslavian strain of Cotesia rubecula (Marshall), an exotic larval parasite of the imported cabbageworm. Four hyperparasites, two of them attacking both~. glomerata and~. rubecula, were found in field plots from 1986-1988. The level of hyperparasitization for the two primary parasites was significantly different. Hyperparasitization averaged only 8.1% for C. glomerata from 1986-1988, but was 37. 9% for C. rubecula from 1987-1988. During the early- to mid-season of 1988, hyperparasite activity was not detectable and C. rubecula outcompeted C. glomerata for hosts; but by mid-season, hyperparasite activity against C. rubecula increased to 100%, causing its populations to crash. C. glomerata then became the dominant parasite of P. rapae. C. rubecula was not recovered in 1989. Hyperparasites may be a limiting factor in establishing C. rubecula in southwestern Virginia. Mortality and successful pupation of P rapae fourth instars parasitized by C. rubecula to B. thuringiensis endotoxin at dosages of 850, 85, and 8.5 I.U./ml was examined. After day two, the LC50's of parasitized fourth instars were approximately thirty times higher than that of unparasitized larvae and by day four, the LC50 response of parasitized fourth instars was 180 times higher than unparasitized larvae. Twenty-five percent of parasitized fourth instars exposed to a concentration of 850 I.U./ml successfully pupated, compared to 76% at 85 I.U./ml and 69% at 8.5 I.U./ml. Parasitized fourth instar P. rapae consume less food and are therefore less susceptible to B. thuringiensis than unparasitized larvae at the same dosages. Ph. D.

Different Laricobius nigrinus Fender release locations, numbers of predators, and timing of release were evaluated for biological control of the hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae). It established at 59% of the sites and location was the most important factor related with establishment and abundance, HWA density, and hemlock vigor index. Cold locations had poor establishment or low abundance, declines in HWA density, and increases in hemlock vigor over time. Paired release and control sites detected a predator impact on HWA density, but densities remained high and tree vigor declined. The phenology of L. nigrinus, L. rubidus LeConte, and HWA were studied at a field insectary and the species were highly synchronized. A cage exclusion study showed that HWA survival and density were lower and ovisac disturbance was higher when exposed to predation. To improve L. nigrinus monitoring, we compared beat sheets for adults or branch clipping for immatures, and the host searching behavior of L. nigrinus was studied to understand how it locates a tree and HWA. In the Appalachians, beat sheet sampling resulted in false negatives as larvae were collected by branch clipping. Adults orientated to a tree visually, fed when prey were present and flew when absent, and showed different search patterns on infested versus uninfested trees. In Seattle, both sampling methods detected L. nigrinus because the predator was common. Predator : prey ratios were high at heavily infested sites in Seattle and low in the eastern US, where is has been released recently. Partial life tables were constructed for HWA sistentes at four sites for 2 yr in Seattle. Unspecified causes of nymph and adult mortality were high and L. nigrinus was the dominant predator of ovisacs. Adult L. nigrinus abundance was positively related to HWA density and immature abundance was related to ovisac density, indicating an aggregation and numerical response to its prey. Laricobius nigrinus has not demonstrated complete biological control of HWA to date, but it may do so in the future and continued release is justified. Ph. D.

High-biomass cover cropping enhances marketable yields in organic production of vegetables, linked to the improvement of soil quality and weed control. Although, during transition from chemical to organic cover-cropping production, especially with no-till systems, reduction of nitrogen availability to the main crop and increase in weed and pest pressure may occur. In 2004-2005, summer and fall broccoli (Brassica oleraceae L. Botrytis Group) crops were grown in twin rows on permanent (controlled traffic) raised beds (185-cm wide). Before broccoli transplanting, high-biomass cover crops were grown in specific bed areas. Legumes (Vicia villosa, Glycine max L., and Crotolaria juncea L.) on bed tops (grow zones) and grass species (Secale Cereale L., Setaria italica L., and Sorghum bicolor X S. bicolor var. Sudanese) in the alleyways (bed shoulders and bottoms). Experimental treatments were tillage (conventional, CT; and no-tillage, NT), farmscaping (with and without), and nitrogen sidedressing (with and without, applied 3 weeks after transplanting as a mixture of sodium nitrate - 22 kg N ha-1 - and feathermeal - 44 kg N ha-1). Weeds were managed by mechanical cultivation in CT and a spot weeding by hand in NT treatments. High numbers of beneficial insects (Cotesia glomerata, Cotesia orobenae and Diadegma insulare) kept the primary insect pest population (Pieris rapae, Evergestis rimosalis (Guenee), and Plutella xylostella) at a pest to predator ratio below 4:1. Although the excellent insect pest control was attributed to the farmscape plantings, pest level and crop yields were not significantly affected by farmscaping (likely due to the close proximity of the farmscaped plots (10-50m from non-farmscaped)). Broccoli yield averaged 62% higher in fall than summer (12.1 vs. 7.5 t ha-1) likely due to cool weather conditions during broccoli head development (October), increasing head size, uniformity, and marketability. In 2004, broccoli yield in CT plots was either equal or slightly higher than NT (9.5 vs. 9.0 t ha-1). However, in 2005, broccoli yield in CT plots was significantly higher in both spring (8.8 vs. 6.8 t ha-1; p = 0.0258) and fall crops (13.5 vs. 12.3 t ha-1 with p = 0.0484). Nitrogen sidedressing improved yield in all plots (9.8. vs. 12.7 t ha-1) and particularly in NT (8.6 vs. 12.1 t ha-1), indicating that availability and/or synchrony of nitrogen was a limiting factor. Incorporating high-N legume residues in the grow zones resulted in a lesser N response in CT. Master of Science