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Life science data is evolving to be ever larger, more distributed, and more natively web-based. However, our collective handling of identifiers has lagged behind these advances. Diverse identifier issues (for instance “link rot” and “content drift”) have hampered our ability to integrate data and derive new knowledge from it. Optimizing web-based identifiers is harder than it appears and no single scheme is perfect: Identifiers are reused in different ways for different reasons, by different consumers. Moreover, digital entities (e.g., files), physical entities (e.g., biosamples), and descriptive entities (e.g., ‘mitosis’) have different requirements for identifiers. Nevertheless, there is substantial room for improvement throughout the life sciences and several other groups have been converging on identifier standards that are broadly applicable. Building on these efforts and drawing on our experience, we focus on the use case of large-scale data integration: we outline the identifier qualities and best practices that we feel are most important in this context. Specifically, we propose actions that providers of online databases (repositories, registries, and knowledgebases) should take when designing new identifiers or maintaining existing ones (Rules 1-9). In Rule 10, we conclude with guidance to data integrators and redistributors on how best to reference identifiers from these diverse sources. This article may also be useful to data generators and end users as it offers insight into the issues associated with data provision in a web environment. We call upon data providers to take a long-term view of their entities’ scope and lifecycle, and to consider existing identifier platforms and services. Rule 1. Use established identifiers Rule 2. Design identifiers for use by others Rule 3. Help local identifiers travel well: document Prefix and Namespace Rule 4. Opt for simple durable web resolution Rule 5. Avoid embedding meaning Rule 6. Make URIs clear and findable Rule 7. Implement a version management policy Rule 8. Do not re-assign or delete identifiers Rule 9. Document the identifiers you issue and use Rule 10. Reference responsibly

In the life sciences, problems with identifiers impede the flow and integrity of information. This is especially challenging within “synthesis research” disciplines such as systems biology, translational medicine, and ecology. Implementation-driven initiatives such as ELIXIR, BD2K, and others have therefore been actively working to understand and address underlying problems with identifiers. Good, global-scale, persistent identifier design is harder than it appears, and is essential for data to be Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (Data FAIRport principles). Here, we build on emerging conventions and existing general recommendations and summarise the identifier characteristics most important to optimising the utility of life-science data. We propose actions to take in the identifier ‘green field’ and offer guidance for using real-world identifiers from diverse sources.

It is common for PubMed users to repeatedly modify their queries (search terms) before retrieving documents relevant to their information needs. To assist users in reformulating their queries, we report the implementation and usage analysis of a new component in PubMed called Related Queries, which automatically produces query suggestions in response to the original user's input. The proposed method is based on query log analysis and focuses on finding popular queries that contain the initial user search term with a goal of helping users describe their information needs in a more precise manner. This work has been integrated into PubMed since January 2009. Automatic assessment using clickthrough data show that each day, the new feature is used consistently between 6% and 10% of the time when it is shown, suggesting that it has quickly become a popular new feature in PubMed.

In the life sciences, problems with identifiers impede the flow and integrity of information. This is especially challenging within “synthesis research” disciplines such as systems biology, translational medicine, and ecology. Implementation-driven initiatives such as ELIXIR, BD2K, and others have therefore been actively working to understand and address underlying problems with identifiers. Good, global-scale, persistent identifier design is harder than it appears, and is essential for data to be Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (Data FAIRport principles). Here, we build on emerging conventions and existing general recommendations and summarise the identifier characteristics most important to optimising the utility of life-science data. We propose actions to take in the identifier ‘green field’ and offer guidance for using real-world identifiers from diverse sources., ORCIDs corresponding to the authors are: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9353-5498 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4155-5910 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2513-5396 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1010-3121 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4727-9435 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9091-5938 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3499-8262 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9823-1621 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3469-4923 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9114-8737 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8479-0262 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6867-9425 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6666-1520 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5404-7670 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0643-3144 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2036-8350 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4625-743X http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6309-7327 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1615-2899 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5454-2815 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1611-6935 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9533-5684 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1034-5171 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4980-3512 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6601-2165 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9853-5668 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5306-5690 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5595-689X http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0405-8854 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4958-0184 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7020-1236 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8936-9143 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3156-2105 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1279-5133 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1219-2137 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3035-4195