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Background: In the last decade, a growing body of research has focused on the many aspects and challenges of combining parenthood with elite sport. Although the number of father-athletes is significantly higher than the number of mother-athletes, few studies to date have focused on male athletes’ experiences in a parenting context. Aim: The aims of the present study were to explore how father-athlete challenges manifest among elite Nordic skiers in Norway, and to better understand how male athletes balance their priorities as they initiate, maintain, and/or discontinue their athletic career as a father-athlete. Methods: Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 10 world-class male Nordic skiers in Norway (3 athletes without a child, 4 current father-athletes and 3 former father-athletes) and the content was analyzed using thematic analysis. Results: Four main stages were identified in the father-athlete transition: (a) Expecting incompatibility (b) Taking the step, (c), The first blow, and (d) Finding the optimal balance. Through these stages the informants expected/had experienced challenges such as performance decline, disturbed sleeping patterns, fear of sickness and role conflicts. To manage these challenges, the father-athletes had developed various strategies to balance their dual roles (e.g., adapting training and competition seasons). Among the benefits, the father-athletes mentioned that they had become more structured, time efficient and ruthless with their priorities, enhanced motivation to train and a better work-life balance. Conclusion: This study offers valuable insights into father-athlete challenges that can be used to support career longevity and work-life balance among male athletes.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recently published a framework on fairness, inclusion, and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender identity and sex variations. Although we appreciate the IOC's recognition of the role of sports science and medicine in policy development, we disagree with the assertion that the IOC framework is consistent with existing scientific and medical evidence and question its recommendations for implementation. Testosterone exposure during male development results in physical differences between male and female bodies; this process underpins male athletic advantage in muscle mass, strength and power, and endurance and aerobic capacity. The IOC's “no presumption of advantage” principle disregards this reality. Studies show that transgender women (male-born individuals who identify as women) with suppressed testosterone retain muscle mass, strength, and other physical advantages compared to females; male performance advantage cannot be eliminated with testosterone suppression. The IOC's concept of “meaningful competition” is flawed because fairness of category does not hinge on closely matched performances. The female category ensures fair competition for female athletes by excluding male advantages. Case-by-case testing for transgender women may lead to stigmatization and cannot be robustly managed in practice. We argue that eligibility criteria for female competition must consider male development rather than relying on current testosterone levels. Female athletes should be recognized as the key stakeholders in the consultation and decision-making processes. We urge the IOC to reevaluate the recommendations of their Framework to include a comprehensive understanding of the biological advantages of male development to ensure fairness and safety in female sports.

Challenges facing mother-athletes (MAs) have aroused research and media attention in recent years, with an increasing number of sportswomen attempting to successfully combine pregnancy and motherhood with an elite athletic career. The aims of this study were to explore how MA-specific challenges manifest in elite cross-country skiing in Scandinavia and to better understand how female athletes balance their priorities as they initiate, maintain, and/or discontinue their role as a MA. Qualitative data were collected through semistructured interviews with 13 female cross-country skiers from Norway and Sweden. Thematic analyses revealed four MA-specific challenges facing the athletes: (a) Biological clock versus peak performance, (b) Maintaining fitness versus training safely, (c) Receiving support versus facing deselection, and (d) Balancing competing MA demands. Many of the athletes felt pressured into prioritizing either motherhood or athletic excellence, particularly in their early to mid-30s when the window of opportunity for building a family was considered limited. Further, maintaining fitness and training safely during pregnancy were perceived as a challenge, as was balancing the MA role after childbirth. In many cases, athletes felt uncertain about whether they would receive support from their team or federation. Moreover, there were expectations of incompatibility surrounding the MA role. More research and educational efforts to promote MA-specific knowledge, as well as developing structured processes and providing policies to support female athletes, are identified as vital future steps. These measures may prolong athletic careers and enhance well-being for elite female athletes.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recently published a framework on fairness, inclusion, and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender identity and sex variations. Although we appreciate the IOC's recognition of the role of sports science and medicine in policy development, we disagree with the assertion that the IOC framework is consistent with existing scientific and medical evidence and question its recommendations for implementation. Testosterone exposure during male development results in physical differences between male and female bodies; this process underpins male athletic advantage in muscle mass, strength and power, and endurance and aerobic capacity. The IOC's “no presumption of advantage” principle disregards this reality. Studies show that transgender women (male-born individuals who identify as women) with suppressed testosterone retain muscle mass, strength, and other physical advantages compared to females; male performance advantage cannot be eliminated with testosterone suppression. The IOC's concept of “meaningful competition” is flawed because fairness of category does not hinge on closely matched performances. The female category ensures fair competition for female athletes by excluding male advantages. Case-by-case testing for transgender women may lead to stigmatization and cannot be robustly managed in practice. We argue that eligibility criteria for female competition must consider male development rather than relying on current testosterone levels. Female athletes should be recognized as the key stakeholders in the consultation and decision-making processes. We urge the IOC to reevaluate the recommendations of their Framework to include a comprehensive understanding of the biological advantages of male development to ensure fairness and safety in female sports.

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate how rifle carriage and skiing speed during biathlon roller skiing affect range of motion (ROM) in joint angles and equipment (skis and poles), the vertical distance between shoulders and treadmill (vertdist), as well as possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage. Methods: Fourteen biathletes (6 women, 8 men) roller-skied on a treadmill at submaximal and simulated race speeds, with (WR) and without (NR) a rifle, using gears 3 and 2. Kinematical data for the whole body, poles, roller-skis, rifle, and treadmill were monitored using a 3D motion capture system. Movements determined as flexion/extension (x), abduction/adduction (y), and/or internal/external rotation (z) were analyzed for the hip, shoulder, thorax, knee, ankle, elbow, poles, and roller skis. ROM (the difference between maximal and minimal angles) in joints and equipment, and vertdist were analyzed over six skiing cycles during each condition (WR and NR) and speed. Results: The maximal vertdist was lower for WR compared with NR (gear 3: 1.53 ± 0.06 vs 1.54 ± 0.06 m; gear 2: 1.49 ± 0.06 vs 1.51 ± 0.06 m; both p < 0.001). ROM in the upper body was altered when roller skiing WR (movements decreased in thorax and shoulder (x) and increased in elbow (only gear 3) (x), thorax (only gear 2), and shoulder (y) and (z); all p < 0.05) and increased with speed, without differences between sexes (p > 0.05). Conclusion: Since rifle carriage and speed appear to affect the kinematics of roller skiing, coaches, and biathletes are advised to perform skiing technique training under competition-like conditions (i.e., at race speeds while carrying the rifle).

INTRODUCTION: A greater usage of gear 3 is associated with improved performance in cross-country skiing. However, it remains unclear whether rifle carriage in biathlon affects sub-technique choice, and therefore biathlon skiing performance. Therefore,this study aimed to investigate whether rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in biathletes, and whether there are any associated sex differences. METHODS: Twenty-eight tier 3 biathletes (17 men, 11 women) skied a 2230-m lap at competition speed twice, once with the rifle (WR) and once without the rifle (NR) in a counter-balanced and randomized order. The course was divided into seven uphill sections, three flat sections and seven downhill sections. The biathletes wore aportable 3D-motion analysis system while skiing, which together with GNSS data enabled the characterization of distance covered and time spent in gears 2–4 and skiing without poles (NP). A two-way mixed model ANOVA was used to investigate whether rifle carriage and/or sex influenced gear distribution or performance. RESULTS: Skiing WR increased the lap time compared to NR (412 (90) vs.395 (91) s, p < 0.001). The biathletes used gear 2 to a greater extent during WR compared to NR (distance: 413 ± 139 vs. 365 ± 142 m; time: 133 (95) vs. 113 (86) s;both p < 0.001) and gear 3 to a lesser extent (distance: 713 ± 166 vs. 769 ± 182 m,p < 0.001; time: 141 ± 33 vs. 149 ± 37 s, p < 0.01) without differences in gear 4 or NP.The women demonstrated a greater proportional use of gear 2 compared to the men (p < 0.05). For the two longest uphill sections, the uphill with a more moderate incline (4.5°) revealed more differences between WR and NR in the use of gears 2 and 3 compared to the uphill with a steeper incline (6.7°). Increased usage of gear 2 (distance and time) was also negatively related to performance during WR and NR (r = 0.516–0.901, p < 0.01). DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: Rifle carriage decreases the distance covered an

INTRODUCTION: Data primarily derived from summer sports show that sex differences in endurance performance are around 10–15% and these differences are explained primarily by differences in body size and composition and higher haemoglobin concentrations in men (Sandbakk et al., 2018). The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive literature review of the documented sex differences in performance and performance-determining factors in the winter Olympic endurance skiing sports of cross-country skiing (XCS), biathlon (BIA) and Nordic combined (NC). METHODS: Article databases of the US National Library of Medicine (PubMed), ScienceDirect and SPORTDiscus were searched using the search terms (gender OR sex differences AND [cross country skiing OR biathlon OR nordic combined]). Additional relevant literature was obtained from the reference lists of the published papers. An expert panel of seven researchers with published studies involving at least one of the included sports were also invited to suggest additional articles that could be considered for inclusion. Inclusion criteria were: 1) direct sex comparisons in one or more of the included sports and 2) competitive athletes > 15 years old. A total of 45 articles were identified for inclusion. RESULTS: Elite men ski 9–16% faster than performance-matched women during XCS and BIA competitions. These sex differences are typically larger in uphill terrain and smaller in downhill terrain. No studies have investigated performance differences between women and men in NC, although an analysis of the 2021 World Championships showed that the top 3 women skied ~ 14% slower over 5 km than the men skied over 10 km. These sex differences in skiing performance coincide with differences in body composition (i.e., more muscle mass in men, especially in the upper body) and aerobic capacity (i.e., higher lactate thresholds and VO2max in men), which impact upon sub-technique use and cycle length. Despite the higher relative mass of

Frontal midline theta power (FMT) has been associated with superior rifle shooting performance. Our experiment examined whether electroencephalographic-based training could increase FMT, shooting performance, and attentional focus in highly trained/elite biathletes. Participants (n = 28; age, M = 21.7, SD = 2.3) were assigned to a control group or an intervention group (with 3 hr of neurofeedback training). FMT increased from baseline during the neurofeedback training sessions (p <= .05). However, there were no Group x Pre-post training (test) interactions for FMT or shooting performance (p > .05). There was a small Group x Test effect for attentional focus (p = .07, eta 2p = .12), indicating a potential benefit of neurofeedback training. Superior shooters were more proficient at increasing FMT during neurofeedback training, but this did not translate to greater improvements in shooting performance. Our findings suggest that the effects of neurofeedback training are transient and do not necessarily benefit performance.

INTRODUCTION: Athletes may suffer from mental illnesses, eating disorders, low energy availability and/or hormonal symptoms (1-3), all of which negatively affect health and performance. Knowledge about these issues is limited among coaches and athletes, which makes attempts to solve problems difficult. Education is recommended to increase the willingness of athletes and coaches to communicate about sensitive or “taboo” topics (4), but information about how best to educate these individuals is limited. The overall aim of this project was to develop, implement and evaluate a programme of education using an action research approach (5). This paper critically discusses the application of action research when seeking to develop such education programmes. METHODS: Action research is the process of using collaborative work to create change to address meaningful substantive issues. It involves the use of systematic enquiry to introduce and evaluate change, whilst also generating new knowledge in relation to that change. Initial insights into the education needs of the participants (32 female and male junior cross-country skiers and their 2 female and 2 male coaches) were gained by the lead author through observations, informal conversations, and a survey. Further data was then collected using a reflective journal, informal conversations, feedback, focus groups and mind-mapping. A series of educational presentations were developed and shared with the participants throughout the data collection process. RESULTS: Initial results from this study demonstrate that action research is beneficial for supporting the development of an education programme where athletes, coaches and researchers work closely together to co-create and evaluate specific content. In this sports performance setting, the education programme was effective at increasing knowledge and communication between athletes and coaches regarding a range of sensitive topics, which have typically been considered “taboo”.

Menstrual health represents a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being in relation to a woman's menstrual cycle. From a health literacy perspective, knowledge acquisition and expertise are dependent upon the degree to which an individual can find, access, understand, critically analyse, and apply health information. Therefore, menstrual health literacy can be used to describe the state of knowledge acquisition and application specific to menstrual health-related issues. Menstrual health literacy is low among female athletes, their coaches, and practitioners, and few evidence-informed education or implementation strategies exist to improve menstrual health literacy in sport. Moreover, athletes seldom discuss their menstrual cycles or hormonal contraceptive use with their coaches, despite experiencing menstrual symptoms and/or disturbances and perceiving their menstrual cycles/hormonal contraceptive use to affect performance. Barriers to communication about menstrual cycle- and hormonal contraceptive-related topics include a perceived lack of knowledge among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, concerns about how conversations on these issues will affect interpersonal relationships, and a lack of formal and informal discussion forums. Whilst evidence relating to the effects of the menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use on training and performance is currently limited, with existing studies often lacking methodological rigour, impactful steps can still be made to support female athletes. This cornerstone review highlights the current state of menstrual health literacy among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, and provides recommendations for improving menstrual health literacy in sport.

This study examined the micro-pacing strategies during a distance freestyle cross-country (XC) skiing competition. Nine female and 10 male highly trained XC skiers wore a GNSS device during a FIS-sanctioned race. The course was ~4900 m; women completed two-laps; men completed three-laps. The course was divided into uphill (S1, S3, S5, S7), downhill (S2, S4, S6, S8), and flat (S9) sections for analyses. Statistical parametric mapping was used to determine the course positions (clusters) where total race time or section time was significantly associated with instantaneous skiing speed. Total race time was associated with instantaneous skiing speed during a cluster in S1 on lap 2 for both sexes (t ≥ 5.899, p ≤ 0.008). The two longest uphill sections (S1; S5) and the flat section (S9) contained clusters where section times were related to instantaneous skiing speed for both sexes (p < 0.05). The fastest woman gained 6.9 s on the slowest woman during a cluster in S1 on lap 1 and 7.3 s during a cluster in S9 on lap 1. The fastest man gained 51.7 s on the slowest man over all clusters in S5 over the 3 laps combined. Compared to skiers with longer total race times, skiers with shorter race times skied with faster instantaneous speeds in some clusters of the uphill sections, as well as on the flat section of the course. This study also identified different relative micro-pacing strategies for women and men during freestyle distance XC skiing races. Finally, statistical parametric mapping analyses can help to identify individual strengths and weaknesses for guiding training programs and optimise competition pacing strategies.

INTRODUCTION: Dietary inorganic nitrate is a popular nutritional supplement, which increases nitric oxide bioavailability and may improve exercise performance. Despite over a decade of research into the effects of dietary nitrate supplementation during exercise there is currently no expert consensus on how, when and for whom this compound could be recommended as an ergogenic aid. Moreover, there is no consensus on the safe administration of dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid. This study aimed to address these research gaps. METHODS: The modified Delphi technique was used to establish the views of 12 expert panel members on the use of dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid. Over three iterative rounds (two via questionnaire and one via videoconferencing), the expert panel members voted on 222 statements relating to dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid. Consensus was reached when > 80% of the panel provided the same answer (i.e. yes or no). Statements for which > 80% of the panel cast a vote of insufficient evidence were categorised as such and removed from further voting. These statements were subsequently used to identify directions for future research. RESULTS: The 12 panel members contributed to voting in all three rounds. A total of 39 statements (17.6%) reached consensus across the three rounds (20 yes, 19 no). In round one, 21 statements reached consensus (11 yes, 10 no). In round two, seven further statements reached consensus (4 yes, 3 no). In round three, an additional 11 statements reached consensus (5 yes, 6 no). The panel agreed that there was insufficient evidence for 134 (60.4%) of the statements, and were unable to agree on the outcome of the remaining statements. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides information on the current expert consensus on dietary nitrate, which may be of value to athletes, coaches, practitioners and researchers. The effects of dietary nitrate appear to be diminished in individuals with a higher aerobic fitness (peak oxygen consu

Objective: To monitor the daily variations and time course of changes in selected variables during a 17–21-day altitude training camp at 1,800 m in a group of elite cross-country skiers (9 women, 12 men) and biathletes (7 women, 4 men). Methods: Among other variables, resting peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2rest), resting heart rate (HRrest) and urine specific gravity (USG) were monitored daily at altitude, while illness symptoms were monitored weekly. Before and after the camp, body composition (i.e., lean and fat mass) and body mass were assessed in all athletes, while roller-skiing speed at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol·L−1 (Speed@4mmol) was assessed in the biathletes only. Results: Neither SpO2rest, HRrest nor USG changed systematically during the camp (p > 0.05), although some daily time points differed from day one for the latter two variables (p < 0.05). In addition, body composition and body mass were unchanged from before to after the camp (p > 0.05). Eleven out of 15 illness episodes were reported within 4 days of the outbound or homebound flight. The five biathletes who remained free of illness increased their Speed@4mmol by ~ 4% from before to after the camp (p = 0.031). Conclusions: The present results show that measures typically recommended to monitor acclimatization and responses to altitude in athletes (e.g., SpO2rest and HRrest) did not change systematically over time. Further research is needed to explore the utility of these and other measures in elite endurance athletes at altitudes typical of competition environments.

Purpose This study aimed to investigate how rifle carriage and skiing speed during biathlon roller-skiing affect range of motion (ROM) in joint angles and equipment (skis and poles), the vertical distance between shoulders and treadmill (vertdist), as well as possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage. Methods Fourteen biathletes (6 women, 8 men) roller-skied on a treadmill at submaximal and simulated race speeds, with (WR) and without (NR) a rifle, using gears 3 and 2. Kinematical data for the whole body, poles, roller-skis, rifle and treadmill were monitored using a 3D motion capture system. Movements determined as flexion/extension (x), abduction/adduction (y) and/or internal/external rotation (z) were analyzed for the hip, shoulder, thorax, knee, ankle, elbow, poles and roller-skis. ROM (the difference between maximal and minimal angles) in joints and equipment, and vertdist were analyzed over six skiing cycles during each condition (WR and NR) and speed. Results The maximal vertdist was lower for WR compared to NR (gear 3: 1.53±0.06 vs 1.54±0.06 m; gear 2: 1.49±0.06 vs 1.51±0.06 m; both p<0.001). ROM in the upper body was altered when roller-skiing WR (movements decreased in thorax and shoulder (x) and increased in elbow (only gear 3) (x), thorax (only gear 2) and shoulder (y) and (z); all p><0.05) and increased with speed, without differences between sexes (p>0.05). Conclusion Since rifle carriage and speed appear to affect the kinematics of rollerskiing, coaches and biathletes are advised to perform skiing technique training under competition-like conditions (i.e., at race speeds while carrying the rifle).

The mother-athlete (MA) dilemma is a social phenomenon that has emerged due to challenges associated with pregnancy and motherhood during a woman’s athletic career. The aims of this study were to explore how MA dilemmas manifest in elite cross-country skiing in Scandinavia and to better understand how female athletes balance their priorities as they initiate, maintain and/or discontinue their role as a MA. Qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews with 13 Swedish and Norwegian female cross-country skiers. Thematic analyses revealed four MA-specific dilemmas facing the athletes: 1. Biological clock vs. peak performance 2. Maintaining fitness vs. training safely 3. Receiving support vs. facing deselection 4. Balancing competing MA demands. Many of the athletes felt pressured into prioritising either athletic excellence or motherhood, particularly in their early to mid-thirties when the window of opportunity for building a family was considered limited. Further, maintaining fitness and training safely during pregnancy (without risking the unborn baby’s health) was perceived as a challenge, as was balancing the MA role after childbirth (i.e., achieving a successful athletic career and being a good mother). In many cases athletes felt uncertain about the support they may or may not receive from their team or federation and there were expectations of incompatibility surrounding the MA role. More research and educational efforts to promote MA-specific knowledge, as well as developing structured processes and providing policies to support female athletes, are identified as vital steps. These interventions may prolong athletic careers and enhance wellbeing for elite female athletes.

The aim was to investigate whether rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in highly-trained biathletes, and whether there were any associated sex differences. Twenty-eight biathletes (11 women, 17 men) skied a 2230-m lap at competition speed twice, one lap with the rifle (WR) and the other lap without the rifle (NR). The biathletes wore a portable 3D-motion analysis system while skiing, which enabled characterisation of distance and time in different gears. Skiing WR increased lap time compared to NR (412 (90) vs. 395 (91) s, p < 0.001). The biathletes used gear 2 to a greater extent WR compared to NR (distance: 413 ± 139 vs. 365 ± 142 m; time: 133 (95) vs. 113 (86) s; both p < 0.001) and gear 3 less (distance: 713 ± 166 vs. 769 ± 182 m, p < 0.001; time: 141 ± 33 vs. 149 ± 37 s, p = 0.008), with similar patterns for women and men. Differences between WR and NR in the use of gears 3 and 2 were more extensive for moderate compared to steeper uphill terrain. Rifle carriage increased the use of gear 2, which was negatively associated with performance. Therefore, preparing biathletes to be able to cover more distance in gear 3 WR, especially in moderate uphill terrain, may improve biathlon skiing performance.

INTRODUCTION: Dietary inorganic nitrate is a popular nutritional supplement, which augments nitric oxide bioavailability and may enhance exercise performance. Despite considerable research exploring the effects of dietary nitrate during exercise, there is currently no expert consensus on how, when and for whom this compound could be recommended as an ergogenic aid. Additionally, there is no consensus on the safe administration of dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid. METHODS: In this study, we used the modified Delphi technique to establish the views of 12 expert panel members on the use of dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid. Over three iterative rounds (two via questionnaire and one via video conferencing), the expert panel members voted on 222 statements relating to the use of dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid. Consensus was reached when > 80% of the panel provided the same answer (i.e., yes or no). Statements for which > 80% of the panel cast a vote of insufficient evidence were categorised as such and removed from further voting. These statements were subsequently used to identify directions for future research. RESULTS: The 12 panel members contributed to voting in all three rounds. A total of 39 (17.6%) statements reached consensus across the three rounds (20 yes, 19 no). In round one, 21 statements reached consensus (11 yes, 10 no). In round two, seven further statements reached consensus (4 yes, 3 no). In round three, an additional 11 statements reached consensus (5 yes, 6 no). The panel agreed that there was insufficient evidence for 134 (60%) of the statements, and were unable to agree on the outcome of the remaining statements. CONCLUSION: This study outlines the current expert consensus on dietary nitrate as an ergogenic aid, which may be of value to athletes, coaches, practitioners and researchers. Findings suggest that the effects of dietary nitrate are reduced in individuals with higher aerobic fitness (VO2peak > 60 ml/kg/min) and therefore

Previous research has indicated that pacing strategies within biathlon are influenced by terrain. However, it is not known if biathletes shooting performance within competition influences any pacing strategies employed. As such, the purpose of this study was to assess the impact of shooting performance on skiing speed and pacing strategies within sprint and individual competitionin elite female biathletes. Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and heart data were collected during the female sprint and individual competitions of the 2019 IBU World Championships. Eight female biathletes (age 27 ± 2 years, IBU points 45 ± 18) competing in the sprint and individual events of the 2019 IBU World Championships volunteered and gave their written informed consent to participate in the study. Statistical analyses were conducted on shooting bout accuracy and speed and GNSS data to determine whether the accuracy and speed of the shooting bout influenced skiing speed in the subsequent lap of the race. No significant differences in skiing speed nor pacing strategies were observed subsequent to accurate or inaccurate shooting bouts, furthermore no significant differences in skiing speed were observed subsequent to fast or slow shooting bouts. As such, it appears in the biathletes assessed here, skiing speed and pacing was independent of shooting performance, although this was observed in a small sample of female biathletes.