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The supply of school mental health (SMH) providers and services cannot meet the demand of students in-need, and this gap is expected to widen in coming years. One way to increase the reach of helpful services for youth is to grow the SMH workforce through task-shifting to paraprofessionals. Task-shifting could be especially promising in expanding Motivational Interviewing (MI) interventions, as MI can be molded to target a number of academic and behavioral outcomes important to schools. However, no review of training exclusively paraprofessional samples in MI has yet been conducted. The current paper provides a scoping review of 19 studies of training paraprofessional providers to use MI to evaluate trainee characteristics, training content and format, and outcomes. Of these 19 studies, 15 reported that paraprofessionals improved in using MI following training. Nine studies reported that task-shifting MI was positively received by clients and/or providers. Six studies examined task-shifting MI in youth-serving contexts, and four examined the practice in traditional school contexts, suggesting its potential for use in SMH. Other findings and implications, such as client behavior change and provider fidelity, are shared, along with ideas for advancing research, practice, and policy in this subfield.

Youth who report prosocial relationships with natural mentors show increased social and academic success and life satisfaction. However, little research investigates how mentors impact aspects of youth identity such as athleticism or religiosity. The present study applies a Bayesian Additive Regression Trees (BART) analysis model to data from a national longitudinal study (N = 15,701) to predict specific outcomes in educational, athletic, and religious domains. This analytic approach is uniquely well-suited for accurately drawing conclusions within highly collinear, high dimensional datasets. Analyses included demographic variables and childhood base rates of academic success, fitness, and religious beliefs as covariates. Findings indicate that the presence of an academic mentor during adolescence longitudinally predicts educational attainment, while athletic or religious mentors did not have significant impacts in terms of increasing athleticism or religiosity. These results suggest that academic mentors may have more longitudinal impacts on student success than other types of mentors.

Youth referred to mentoring programs vary considerably in the range and severity of difficulties (i.e., behavioral, internalizing, social and academic) and environmental challenges they face. However, their patterns of risk and corresponding consequences for mentoring have rarely been investigated. This study draws on data for youth participants in 30 mentoring programs (n = 2,165, 55.1% females) to examine patterns of presenting challenges. Four profiles emerged using three-step latent profile analyses. Profiles with more intensive symptoms were associated with more environmental stressors. Moreover, there were significant differences between profiles in youth-perceived relationship attributes, including closeness, youth-centeredness, growth focus and mentor-mentee relational health. The profile with the highest externalizing and social challenge indicators scored the lowest across these four relational indices. The results highlight variability of youth risk at baseline, and its differential impact on mentoring relationship outcomes. Implications for mentoring programs are discussed.

We report on the process of planning, adapting, and implementing a brief, instrumental, school-based mentoring curriculum originally developed in the United States, in three cities in India. India has the world's largest population of young adults aged 10-24 years, a developmental period associated with heightened psychosocial stressors and the onset of mental health issues, as well as a dire shortage of mental health professionals. Moving services that are typically provided by highly skilled professionals to individuals with fewer credentials or less formal training (e.g., from psychologists to mentors) can increase access to adolescent mental health services. Yet, transferring programs internationally is accompanied by unique barriers including cultural differences, and should be guided by an established framework. In this paper, we discuss the formation of a research-practice partnership designed to generate applied knowledge through emic cultural perspectives. We describe each stage of the program adaptation process within the Cultural Adaptation Framework (Fendt-Newlin et al., 2020), including our decisions to strategically adjust, remove, or retain content from the original mentoring intervention. Although program delivery was prematurely discontinued due to the COVID-19 pandemic, we provide a brief synopsis of lessons learned through the international partnership.

Background: Mentoring programs pair non-familial adults with children and adolescents for the purposes of promoting positive youth development. Although these programs are widely popular, evaluations tend to show that mentoring programs have, on average, modest effects on youth outcomes. Some researchers have suggested that mentoring programs should homogenize mentoring activities as a means for increasing effect sizes of programs. Objective: This paper describes why heterogeneity of mentoring activities should not necessarily be regarded as a problem (i.e., a "bug") that needs correction; rather it is more representative of the construct of mentoring as it is popularly understood and also desirable because of the potential to improve access and quality of prevention services (i.e., it is a "feature"). Method: We present different simulated scenarios demonstrating how evaluations of mentoring programs may change the estimates of treatment effects depending on how evaluators measure programmatic activities and approach analyses. Results: Analyses illustrate that commonly used evaluation strategies that treatment effects may be underestimated when mentoring activities are not measured and are paired with common analytic approaches (e.g., intent-to-treat analyses). Simulated scenarios also highlight alternative approaches for defining programmatic elements and evaluating programs to produce a more robust estimate of effects. Conclusions: The optimal strategy for evaluating mentoring services depends on the particular features of the program as well as the goals of the evaluation. One approach researchers might take is to evaluate specific mentoring practices, before evaluating mentoring programs, to begin to understand program impact.

Like many youth development programs, most youth mentoring programs do not have prescribed practices that target specific outcomes. Because the construct of mentoring represents a broad range of potential activities, researchers face a conundrum when making generalizable causal inferences about the effects of this and similar services. On the one hand, researchers cannot make valid experimental inferences if they do not describe what they manipulate. On the other hand, experiments that include prescribed protocols do not generalize to most mentoring programs. In most cases, researchers conducting school-based mentoring program evaluations err on the side of not sufficiently specifying treatment constructs, which limits the field's ability to make practically or theoretically useful inferences about this service. We discuss this reality in light of the fundamental logic of the experimental design and suggest several possible solutions to this conundrum. Our goal is to empower researchers to adequately specify treatments while still preserving the treatment construct validity of this and similar interventions.

National test data indicate that some students do not perform well in writing, suggesting a need to identify students at risk for poor performance. Research supports Written Expression Curriculum-Based Measurement (WE-CBM) as an indicator of writing proficiency, but it is less commonly used in practice. This study examined the usability of WE-CBM compared with Reading Curriculum-Based Measurement (R-CBM). Participants included 162 teachers who were given examples of WE-CBM and R-CBM and then completed a usability measure for both curriculum-based measurement (CBM) types. Teachers not only rated WE-CBM as usable but also rated R-CBM significantly higher in usability, with no significant differences in acceptability. Practical implications that may inform modifications to WE-CBM are discussed.

In the United States, school-based mentoring programs are a large and widely funded form of mentoring. Despite widespread support, meta-analyses indicate that the effects of school-based mentoring programs are small. One hypothesis for these results is that school-based mentors are not able to develop a sufficiently high-quality relationship with mentees to produce the hypothesized positive effects. This study presents a reanalysis of a large randomized controlled trial of school-based mentoring and examines the estimated effect of mentoring as a function of mentee-reported relationship quality using a novel statistical approach. Although we found that average effect sizes were near zero and consistent with researchers' original findings, our findings also indicate that low relationship quality is associated with some harmful effects, particularly on misconduct, and that as relationship quality improves, so do effects. However, we found that this association decelerates and resulted in small, positive effects for some outcomes. These results suggest that that poor relationship quality may produce harmful effects and a strong relationship may not be sufficient to produce moderate, positive academic and behavioral outcomes in a school-based mentoring context.

Approximately, 283 sixth-grade students completed four randomly generated Math Curriculum-Based Measures (M-CBMs) from interventioncentral.org twice during a fall semester. These M-CBMs measured foundational skills in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We found that using mean fluency or accuracy scores from four M-CBMs produced more reliable test-retest estimates (e.g., r = 0.86-0.88) in comparison with using individual scores (e.g., r = 0.55-0.73). We also found that aggregated (mean or median) and individual M-CBM scores were strongly correlated (e.g., r = 0.82-0.85) with the Palmetto Achievement Challenge Test (PACT) math section, an annual state standardized test. However, only aggregated M-CBMs produced efficient cut scores useful in detecting students who would pass or fail the PACT.

Multitiered systems of support depend on screening technology to identify students at risk. The purpose of this study was to examine the use of a computer-adaptive test and latent class growth analysis (LCGA) to identify students at risk in reading with focus on the use of this methodology to characterize student performance in screening. Participants included 3,699 students in Grades 3-5. Three time points of administration (fall, winter, and spring) of the computer-adaptive reading measure were selected. LCGA results indicated 6-7 classes, depending on grade, informed by level and growth in student performance that significantly predicted failure on the statewide test administered at the end of the year. The lowest-performing classes had failure rates above 90% across all grades. The results indicate that identifying homogeneous groups of learners through LCGA may be valuable as an approach to determining students who need additional instruction. Practical implications and future directions are discussed.

Teachers are key players in efforts to address school bullying and peer victimization. Recent studies found that teachers' responses to peer victimization can vary based on their beliefs and attitudes. We examined relations among teacher self-efficacy, teachers' intentions to use recommended antibullying practices, and peer victimization as rated by teachers and students. In Study 1 (N = 79), we examined the internal structure, reliability, and initial validity of the Teacher Efficacy for Antibullying Scale (TEAS), a new measure of teachers' self-efficacy regarding school bullying and peer victimization. In Study 2, we used data from elementary school teachers (N = 34) and their students (N = 654) to test whether the interaction between teacher self-efficacy and intentions to use recommended antibullying practices predicted children's peer victimization. We also tested whether the relation between teacher self-efficacy and children's peer victimization was curvilinear. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), we found support for a curvilinear relation between teacher self-efficacy and children's peer victimization that was moderated by teachers' intentions to use antibullying practices; except in classrooms where teachers held very strong intentions to use best practices, children's peer victimization was greater in classrooms where teachers reported either very low or very high self-efficacy relative to classrooms where teachers had more moderate levels of self-efficacy. Discussed are the research and practice implications of these findings for teacher-based antibullying training and intervention.

In our paper we describe a newly developed teacher coaching model that provides training on motivational interviewing (MI) to improve instructional coaches' effectiveness with classroom teachers. Participants were 38 coaches who completed a three-day coaching training. At pre- and post-test, the participants completed role plays with an actor who played the role of a new teacher. Then, these sessions were coded for MI-consistent behavior. The results of our study revealed that the majority of the coaching conversations were inconsistent with effective MI. At baseline, conversations were primarily characterized by questions (60%) followed by attempts to persuade without permission (20%). Following training, coaches did not change their conversational style. Because an MI-inconsistent conversation style is associated with decreased self-efficacy and motivation for change, the findings suggest a need to help coaches develop interactions that are more consistent with best practices of MI.

This study evaluated the efficacy of an intentionally brief school-based mentoring program. This academic goal-focused mentoring program was developed through a series of iterative randomized controlled trials, and is informed by research in social cognitive theory, cognitive dissonance theory, motivational interviewing, and research in academic enablers. In previous research, the program was found to produce effects on students' math grades, life satisfaction, and disruptive behavior. In the current study, a revised version of the program was tested in a randomized controlled trial, wherein 72 middle school students were randomly assigned to receive an eight-week mentoring curriculum, or to a no-treatment control. Following the treatment, middle school students who participated in the mentoring curriculum had statistically significantly higher math grades (d = 0.42), English grades (d = 0.59), life satisfaction (d = 0.49), and 0.82 fewer absences. Small, but not statistically significant effects were also found for science (d = 0.25) and history (d = 0.15). Near zero effects were found for behavioral infractions.

In this study, we tested a theoretical model of training practices in school-based mentoring by comparing the differences between two mentoring programs on mentor-reported program support, value of training, relationship satisfaction, and plans to continue mentoring. The two mentoring programs that we compared were conducted at the same school and involved similar contexts, structure, and goals but differed in the training approach (i.e. quality, frequency, and duration of training and support). Using a structural equation model, we tested a theory of mentor-reported differences between the studies and found that mentors in the program with enhanced training and support reported more program support, value of training, and plans to continue mentoring, when compared to the program without enhanced training and support. Indirect effects were subsequently analyzed and we found that these differences indirectly contributed to greater relationship satisfaction.

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is strongly emphasized in many professions and should be taught as part of pre-professional training or to promote the development of enlightened citizens who utilize professional services. Service-learning (SL) classes provide an excellent opportunity to provide meaningful training in how EBP relates to education, training, and service delivery. Two core components of SL are (1) integrated learning, where service is clearly linked to broader learning objectives and disciplinary values, and (2) meaningful service, where service produces measurable outcomes. In order to achieve both aspirations, undergraduate SL classes should provide explicit didactic instruction and direct experience in EBP. In this article, the authors review the rationale for EBP and provide an example of incorporating EBP into SL. Although the authors' example is from a psychology SL class, incorporation of EBP should be of interest to any discipline that values experiential education to promote critical thinking.

Youth mentoring is a popular and well-respected volunteer activity in the USA. Although there is support for the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of community-based mentoring (CBM), the research on school-based mentoring (SBM)--the most popular form of youth mentoring--is mixed. Most of the SBM studies find inconsistent or small effects. The reason for the difference in the success of CBM and SBM may be the unique context, structures and goals of SBM relative to CBM. In an effort to guide SBM programmes towards larger and more consistent positive results, the authors review context-specific considerations of providing mentoring in schools. We present several evidence-based practices that are compatible with SBM and should strengthen the effects of this popular intervention. To illustrate the importance of these considerations, we provide a case example of redeveloping a failed SBM programme into a promising programme by reviewing two iterative randomized evaluations. Finally, we encourage school-based mental health experts' involvement in the redevelopment of SBM.

At present, the mental healthcare system cannot meet the demand for services, and the need‐to‐access gap is widest among children and adolescents. Single session interventions (SSIs) are brief, intentional, and mechanism‐targeted programs that have shown promise in increasing the reach of effective, evidence‐based services; yet, a wide gap still remains due to structural barriers (e.g., lack of awareness, workforce shortages). The present paper posits the integration of SSIs and mentor‐delivered programs as a promising future step to further overcome the inaccessibility of youth mental health services. Capitalizing on the advantages of mentoring relationships (e.g., the associated interpersonal benefits and mentors' pre‐existence in most community settings) has the potential to complement and enhance the value of SSIs, and to expand the acceptability and reach of evidence‐based mental health services. In this paper, we discuss the anticipated benefits of mentor‐delivered SSIs, as well as cautionary considerations related to the proposed model. To conclude, we highlight the necessary implementation and research implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Third variable effects elucidate the relation between two other variables, and can describe why they are related or under what conditions they are related. This article demonstrates methods to analyze two third-variable effects: moderation and mediation. The utility of examining moderation and mediation effects in school psychology is described and current use of the analyses in applied school psychology research is reviewed and evaluated. Proper statistical methods to test the effects are presented, and different effect size measures for the models are provided. Extensions of the basic moderator and mediator models are also described. (Contains 7 figures and 2 tables.)

The demand for child mental health services, including those provided by psychologists, counselors, and social workers, exceeds the supply. This trend is expected to continue or worsen unless there are substantial structural changes in how mental health services are provided. We propose a framework for paraprofessional youth mentors, defined as a subgroup of professionally supervised, non‐expert volunteer or paid mentors to whom aspects of professional helping tasks are delegated. Our proposal is aligned with historical and modern solutions to scaling mental health services, and this framework could simultaneously increase the number of youth receiving evidence‐based mental health services and reduce the burden on existing systems of care. The framework defines three plausible tasks for paraprofessional mentors: (1) reducing barriers to mental health service, (2) increasing engagement in services, and (3) providing direct services. The safety and effectiveness of these task‐shifting efforts will hinge on competency‐based training and evaluation, supervision by professionals, and documentation of services rendered, all of which the field of youth mentoring currently lacks. We describe several requisite scientific, institutional, and regulatory advances that will be necessary to realize this variant of youth mentoring for a subgroup of youth who are presenting for assistance with mental health problems. Highlights: We propose a framework for delegating some mental health service tasks to paraprofessional mentors.Appropriately scaled, paraprofessionals can reduce the burden of youth's mental health difficulties.With training, a subset of mentors could increase engagement in and deliver mental health services.Training, supervision, and documentation of services will be critical to scale.Paraprofessional youth mentorship requires research to establish efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The preference for and exercise of autonomous decision‐making in adolescence is a normative developmental process. Yet, increased autonomy is associated with both risks and benefits. Connection to others through positive relationships, including mentoring relationships, is one context that predicts healthy autonomous decision‐making. In other ways, such relationships can interfere or stifle the development of autonomy. In synthesizing the existing scientific literature on autonomy development and autonomy‐supportive practices, we propose a framework for considering the role of mentors in supporting autonomy through five domains of influence: role modeling, encouraging, providing access to resources, relationships, and experiences, advocacy, and conversations about behavior change. We provide suggestions for research and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report a pilot study of a brief (i.e., 10 sessions) goal‐focused mentoring program for middle school students with elevated disruptive behavior. Students with high levels of school misconduct (n = 67) were randomly assigned to the program or school as usual. We collected multi‐informant emotional, behavioral, and academic functioning assessments pre‐ and postintervention. Results indicate that the program produced significant positive changes in school behavioral infractions, math grades, students' report of emotional symptoms, and school problems. Mentors found the curriculum acceptable, understood the material from the manual, found implementing the curriculum feasible, and felt the program was congruent with the school mission. Mentors of less impaired students indicated that they desired additional support implementing the manual, perhaps indicating the program is overengineered for students with higher levels of impairment. The manuscript concludes with a discussion of considerations for future research and implementation, including the importance of integrating mentoring programs into existing support systems (e.g., multitiered systems of support) within the school context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Like many youth development programs, most youth mentoring programs do not have prescribed practices that target specific outcomes. Because the construct of mentoring represents a broad range of potential activities, researchers face a conundrum when making generalizable causal inferences about the effects of this and similar services. On the one hand, researchers cannot make valid experimental inferences if they do not describe what they manipulate. On the other hand, experiments that include prescribed protocols do not generalize to most mentoring programs. In most cases, researchers conducting school-based mentoring program evaluations err on the side of not sufficiently specifying treatment constructs, which limits the field's ability to make practically or theoretically useful inferences about this service. We discuss this reality in light of the fundamental logic of the experimental design and suggest several possible solutions to this conundrum. Our goal is to empower researchers to adequately specify treatments while still preserving the treatment construct validity of this and similar interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National test data indicate that some students do not perform well in writing, suggesting a need to identify students at risk for poor performance. Research supports Written Expression Curriculum-Based Measurement (WE-CBM) as an indicator of writing proficiency, but it is less commonly used in practice. This study examined the usability of WE-CBM compared with Reading Curriculum-Based Measurement (R-CBM). Participants included 162 teachers who were given examples of WE-CBM and R-CBM and then completed a usability measure for both curriculum-based measurement (CBM) types. Teachers not only rated WE-CBM as usable but also rated R-CBM significantly higher in usability, with no significant differences in acceptability. Practical implications that may inform modifications to WE-CBM are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]