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IntroductionIncreasing racial/ethnic diversity in the United States calls for methodological approaches that capture participants who identify with multiple racial/ethnic groups. Existing approaches are oriented toward large samples (N > 500); yet, we do not know how effective these approaches are with more common smaller convenience samples. We explored how several approaches were associated with the sample distribution of racial/ethnic groups and ethnic identity using a small convenience sample.MethodsIn 2017, 320 U.S. adolescents (Mage  = 16.04 years, SDage  = 1.33; 59% female) responded to an open-ended question regarding their racial/ethnic group(s) in a cross-sectional survey. Seventy-five (23%) adolescents identified with multiple racial/ethnic groups. Remaining adolescents identified solely with the Asian/Hawaiian Native/Pacific Islander (19%), Black/African American (3%), European American (21%), Latinx (34%), or Native American/Alaska Native (

We examined the associations between time perspective and mental health outcomes (N = 337; Mage = 22.74, SDage = 5.59; 76% female). Time perspective included multiple dimensions (feelings, frequency, orientation, and relation) and time periods (past, present, and future). Mental health outcomes included depressive symptoms, anxiety, and rumination. To demonstrate the reliability of the time perspective scales, test-retest analyses were completed. Multivariate analyses showed that (a) positive feelings about time were associated with lower anxiety; (b) negative feelings about time were associated with greater anxiety; and (c) more frequent thoughts about the past were associated with greater depressive symptoms and anxiety. Associations remained when controlling for anxiety and depressive symptoms, respectively. Moreover, (a) positive feelings about time were associated with lower rumination; (b) negative feelings about time were associated with greater rumination; and (c) more frequent thoughts about the past were associated with greater rumination. Time perspective scales yielded scores that were moderate to high in test-retest reliability. Findings demonstrate the value of examining separate time perspective dimensions and time periods. Results highlight the role of time perspective in mental health interventions for adults.

We used a person-centered approach to examine associations among time attitude profiles –positive and negative feelings about the past, present, and future – and risky behaviors. Participants were adolescents from the U.S. and Germany. The U.S. sample included 742 participants (MAge = 15.71; 53.6% female). The German sample included 610 participants (MAge = 14.75; 51.4% female). Latent profile analyses supported three more adaptive (Positive, Balanced, and Optimists) and two less adaptive (Ambivalent, Extremely Past Negative) time attitude profiles in both samples. In the U.S., adolescents in the Positive profile reported fewer risky behaviors than their counterparts. In Germany, adolescents in the Extremely Past Negatives profile reported more risky behaviors than their counterparts. Findings support the investigation of time attitudes as a meaningful correlate of risky behaviors in adolescents and across cultures.

Bullying victimization is a prevalent and harmful experience for adolescents and is positively associated with risky behaviors, including tobacco use. We investigated a potential moderator for the associations between bullying victimization and tobacco use, namely time perspective, which refers to thoughts about time. Bullied adolescents may focus on past events more than present or future events, which could lead to less adaptive coping mechanisms in response to stress, such as tobacco use. Multiple time perspective dimensions and time periods (past, present, and future) were examined. Time orientation refers to the relative emphasis placed on a time period. Time relation refers to the perceived relationship among the time periods. Bullying victimization and tobacco use were self-reported. Participants included 758 adolescents (Mage = 15.81, SDage = 1.22; 54% female). Multiple linear regression analysis indicated that bullying victimization was positively associated with tobacco use. Moderated regression analyses indicated that perceiving all time periods as important (time orientation) and interrelated (time relation) buffered the positive association between bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents. Analyses controlled for demographics, sensation seeking, and stress. Results suggest that future research should examine the viability of time perspective-based interventions for bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents.

Time perspective is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that assesses individuals' feelings and thoughts about the past, present, and future. The current study examined relationships between feelings (time attitudes) and thoughts (time orientation) about time and substance use behaviors across three adolescent samples. Participants included a high-risk sample of adjudicated youth (N=124; M age =15.54, SD=1.69; 51.61% female) and two general population school samples (N=777; M age =15.82, SD=1.23; 53.41% female; N=1873; M age =15.87, SD=1.28; 52.22% female). Cross-sectional survey data were collected from samples in schools during 2010, 2016, and 2011, respectively. Poisson and negative binomial regression analyses indicated that overall, more positive feelings about time were associated with fewer substances used and, conversely, more negative feelings about time were associated with more substances used. These findings were particularly salient for participants with stronger positive and negative feelings toward the past and present time periods. Further, across the three samples, adolescents with a balanced time orientation (i.e., equal emphasis on all three time periods) generally reported less substance use than individuals who emphasized only one or two time periods. Findings highlight relationships between time perspective dimensions and substance use across diverse samples and illustrate opportunities for adapting time perspective-based substance use interventions for adolescents.

We examined time perspective and self-esteem in adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. Time perspective was measured with scales that assess relative orientations and relationships among the past, present, and future. Age effects were examined with standard analytic strategies to determine categorical differences between age groups and with new statistical techniques designed to show continuous age patterns. Findings indicated that (1) thinking about the future was greatest for adolescents and young adults and lowest for middle-aged and older adults, and thinking about the present increased across ages; (2) fewer adolescents and middle-aged participants perceived that the time periods were interrelated compared to younger and older adults; and (3) across ages, a greater emphasis towards the past compared to other time periods was associated with lower self-esteem, whereas emphasizing the present and the future jointly was associated with higher self-esteem.

The present study aimed to develop an applicable Chinese version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) and to examine its reliability and validity in national samples of China. We first used the samples of undergraduates to revise the original scale into Chinese version, and then examined the psychometric properties of the revised scale in a lager sample (18 to 65 years old). The revised 25-item scale consists of five subscales assessing Past Positive, Past Negative, Present Impulsive, Present Fatalistic, and Future with a similar factor structure to the original instrument, except that 'Present Hedonistic' was renamed as 'Present Impulsive'. Internal consistency estimates and confirmatory factor analyses showed that the 25-item ZTPI-Chinese version provided good reliability and the revised five-factor structure had acceptable fitness. Subsequent analyses provided support for invariance across gender and age. Overall, the ZTPI-Chinese version provides a reliable and valid instrument for testing time perspective in Chinese population, thereby facilitating both the study of time perspective in China and cross-cultural comparisons., Author(s): Xiaobao Li [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Chen Wang [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Houchao Lyu [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Frank C. Worrell [sup.4] , Zena R. Mello [sup.5] Author Affiliations: [...]

The number of ways in which Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scores are operationalized has increased, and scores have begun to be used in clinical settings. A recent systematic review outlined how one operationalization, the deviation from a balanced time perspective (DBTP), was significantly associated with a range of outcomes. The review called for further investigation into the DBTP approach. Subsequently, a revised DBTP metric, the DBTP-R has been suggested. Using data from British, American, Japanese, and Slovenian samples, we asked several questions in the current study. First, we examined the structural validity of ZTPI scores using both traditional and auto-regressive approaches to see if context affects scoring. Consistent with the extant literature, results revealed serious problems with overall model fit for ZTPI scores. Then, we investigated the relationship between the DBTP and DBTP-R operationalizations of ZTPI scores and scores on a range of criterion variables. Although, broadly speaking, a DBTP score was significantly related to a range of other measures (adjusted for age and sex), results varied by sample and by outcome. DBTP-R models explained slightly more variance than DBTP models, and standardized beta values suggested that DBTP-R scores relate to criterion variables slightly more strongly than DBTP scores.

We examined time perspective and self-esteem in adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. Time perspective was measured with scales that assess relative orientations and relationships among the past, present, and future. Age effects were examined with standard analytic strategies to determine categorical differences between age groups and with new statistical techniques designed to show continuous age patterns. Findings indicated that (1) thinking about the future was greatest for adolescents and young adults and lowest for middle-aged and older adults, and thinking about the present increased across ages; (2) fewer adolescents and middle-aged participants perceived that the time periods were interrelated compared to younger and older adults; and (3) across ages, a greater emphasis towards the past compared to other time periods was associated with lower self-esteem, whereas emphasizing the present and the future jointly was associated with higher self-esteem.

IntroductionBullying victimization is detrimental to psychosocial wellbeing in adolescents. It is paramount that factors that mitigate the harmful effects of bullying victimization be identified. Time perspective may be a potential mechanism. Thus, we examined the moderating effect of time perspective on the associations between traditional and cyberbullying victimization (being bullied in person and on electronic media) and self-esteem in adolescents. Time perspective refers to feelings and thoughts about the past, present, and future. We examined time feelings (positive and negative feelings about the time periods), time frequency (frequency of thoughts about the time periods), and time relation (the perceived relationship among the time periods).MethodsTwo cross-sectional survey studies were conducted. Study 1 examined traditional bullying victimization in 721 American adolescents (Mage = 15.84, SD = 1.20; 57% female). Study 2 examined cyberbullying victimization in 190 American adolescents (Mage = 15.83, SD = 1.28; 59% female).ResultsHierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that time perspective dimensions moderated the associations between high levels of traditional and cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents who (a) had strong positive and weak negative feelings about the present and future (time feelings); (b) thought a little about the past (time frequency); or (c) perceived all time periods as interrelated (time relation).ConclusionsTime perspective dimensions (feelings, frequency, and relation) moderated the associations between traditional and cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents. Findings have implications for bullying victimization prevention efforts. Findings also demonstrate the multidimensional and multi-temporal qualities of time perspective.

The purpose of the study was to use model-based clustering to identify adolescent time attitude profiles in a sample of students from an urban high school using Adolescent Time Inventory-Time Attitude (ATI-TA) scores and to examine the association of ATI-TA profiles with demographic variables and grade point average (GPA). Three ATI-TA profiles were identified--Positives, Ambivalent, and Conflicted--two of which were similar to clusters identified in previous studies. Results indicated that gender and grade were not associated with cluster membership. However, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and GPA were related to cluster membership. Although overall effect sizes for socioeconomic status and ethnicity were small, post-hoc analyses suggested that differences among ethnic groups should be investigated further. There were substantial GPA differences between some clusters (Cohen's d = 0.36 - 1.27). Future directions for research on adolescent time attitude profiles should include in-depth studies examining the relationship between profile membership and achievement and longitudinal studies to observe whether time attitude profile membership changes over time.

The existing scales for measuring balanced time perspective (BTP) have limitations, such as poor‐fitting structures or a complex calculation method. Based on previous studies, we conceptualize BTP as an individual's overall positive outlook on the past and future and mindfully living in the present. The present study aimed to develop the Time Perspective Inventory (TPI) for Chinese adults, determine its psychometric properties, and examine a simple calculation method for generating a score to represent BTP. In study 1, a 7‐factor structure of TPI – Past Positive, Past Negative, Mindful Present, Present Hedonistic, Present Excessively Task‐oriented, Future Positive, and Future Negative – was established through exploratory (sample 1, N = 529) and confirmatory (sample 2, N = 577) factor analyses. Findings supported the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and criterion‐related validity of the TPI. We proposed using the score difference between positive time perspectives and negative time perspectives to calculate the BTP. Findings showed that the correlations between BTP and subjective well‐being indicators and anxiety were higher than among individual dimensions of TPI. Study 2 (sample 3, N = 713) compared the effects of the TPI and the Chinese version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI‐C) on well‐being indicators and anxiety. Results indicated that the variance of life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and anxiety explained by BTP measured with TPI was higher than deviation from BTP (DBTP) measured with ZTPI‐C. Together, the TPI yields reliable and valid BTP scores among Chinese adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we extend research on stereotype threat to adolescents and to school belonging. Stereotype threat refers to the impact of societal stereotypes on individual performance. Participants included adolescents from marginalized racial/ethnic minority groups including African Americans, American Indians, and Latinos and nonmarginalized racial/ethnic groups including Asian Americans and European Americans. A subtle manipulation that involved altering the sequence of instruments on a survey was employed to make identity salient and to activate stereotype threat. Results indicated that marginalized minority adolescents in the threat condition reported lower school belonging scores than their counterparts in the nonthreat condition, with a small to medium effect size. Making identity salient did not affect school belonging in nonmarginalized participants. Findings have implications for academic performance in minority adolescents. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

In this study, we compared the time perspectives of runaway and nonrunaway adolescents by examining relationships among time perspective, psychological outcomes, and risky behavior within runaways. Participants included 163 runaway and 581 nonrunaway adolescents who completed a self-report survey. Several dimensions of time perspective were measured including positive and negatives attitudes, orientations, and perceived relationships regarding the past, the present, and the future. Psychological outcomes included optimism, self-esteem, and hope; risky behavior was assessed with a composite scale. Results indicated that runaway adolescents reported less positive and more negative attitudes toward time and perceived time periods as less related than nonrunaways, even after controlling for differences in maternal education and academic achievement. Findings also showed that among runaways, psychological outcomes and risky behavior were associated with time perspective dimensions in expected directions. Results are discussed in light of implications for theory on time perspective and interventions with runaways.

Time perspective is a useful psychological construct associated with educational outcomes (Phalet, Andriessen, & Lens, 2004) and may prove fruitful for research focusing on academically talented adolescents. Thus, the relationship of time perspective to age, gender, and academic achievement was examined among 722 academically talented middle and high school students. Time perspective was measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Regression analyses yielded several significant results: An increase in age was associated with present hedonism, females had fewer negative thoughts about the future than males, and academic achievement was negatively associated with present fatalistic attitudes and positively associated with future positive attitudes. Findings support the examination of time perspective as a multidimensional construct including past, present, and future orientations in academically talented populations. Implications of these results for educational and developmental theory and practice are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

Using cluster analysis of Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (ATAS) scores in a sample of 300 adolescents ("M" age = 16 years; "SD" = 1.25; 60% male; 41% European American; 25.3% Asian American; 11% African American; 10.3% Latino), the authors identified five time attitude profiles based on positive and negative attitudes toward the past, present, and future. Four of the profiles identified in the present study were conceptually similar to profiles that emerged in a study in a German sample. Adolescents with profiles characterized by higher positive attitudes than negative attitudes (i.e., Positive, Optimistic, and Balanced) reported more favorable educational and psychological outcomes than did adolescents with profiles marked by higher negative attitudes (i.e., Negative and Pessimistic). These findings provide support for the generalizability of time attitude profiles and the pattern of relationships between ATAS profiles and other constructs.

We report on two studies that examine new instruments that assess time orientation and time relation in adolescents. These concepts refer to how individuals think about the past, the present, and the future, with time orientation defined as the emphasis one gives toward each time period and time relation defined as the degree one perceives that the time periods are related to one another. Study 1 showed that time orientation predicted academic achievement and self-esteem and time relation predicted academic achievement and hope. Study 2, which included revised versions of the instruments, replicated most findings and demonstrated that both time orientation and time relation were related to engaging in risky behaviors. As hypothesized, in both studies, there were no gender differences in time orientation or time relation. These instruments provide a new way to assess how adolescents' perceive time and how this relates to their development and behavior. (Contains 2 tables.)

In the present study, we examined demographic differences in time attitudes in a sample of 293 adolescents. Time attitudes were measured using the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (Mello & Worrell, 2007; Worrell, Mello, & Buhl, 2011), which assesses positive and negative attitudes toward the past, the present, and the future. Generally, African Americans and Asian Americans reported higher scores for negative time attitudes and lower scores for positive time attitudes than European Americans and Latinos, with medium sizes. Adolescents in the low socioeconomic status group reported a less favorable evaluation of their past than middle and high SES peers, but there were no meaningful differences in time attitudes by gender. Findings indicate that middle SES adolescents, high school juniors and seniors, Latinos, and European Americans had higher representation in positive time attitude clusters (i.e., Positives and Balanced) than high SES adolescents, high school freshmen and sophomores, and African Americans. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Adolescents' expectations about school and work may be key antecedents of adult attainment and this relationship may vary by specific racial, ethnic, and gender groups. This article examines how educational and occupational expectations change in adolescence and how expectations predict corresponding attainment in adulthood. Participants included African American and Hispanic females and males. Educational and occupational expectations were reported at ages 14, 16, and 18, and educational and occupational attainment at ages 20 and 26. Results indicated distinct developmental trajectories per racial or ethnic and gender group. Educational expectations were more nuanced for African American and Hispanic females than for their male counterparts; occupational expectations were more varied for Hispanic females than for other groups. Educational expectations positively predicted educational attainment for all participants, whereas occupational attainment was predicted just by educational expectations and for Hispanic females and males only. (Contains 5 figures and 3 tables.)

Behavior rating scales aid in the identification of problem behaviors, as well as the development of interventions to reduce such behavior. Although scores on many behavior rating scales have been validated in the United States, there have been few such studies in other cultural contexts. In this study, the structural validity of scores on a Spanish translation of the six-factor Child Behavior Scale (CBS) was assessed in a sample of 265 Peruvian preschool children who ranged from 2 to 6 years in age. Exploratory factor analysis yielded a four-factor structure, and reliability estimates for scores on the four factors were adequate. The authors suggest replicating the study and examining the utility of CBS scores in predicting future problem behaviors in this population. (Contains 3 tables.)

Adolescents' future expectations are a potentially important precursor of adult attainment and may illuminate how males and females vary in schooling and work. Thus, this longitudinal study examined gender variation in developmental trajectories of educational and occupational expectations from adolescence to adulthood and in connection to corresponding adult attainment. National data (NELS:88) including individuals aged 14 to 26 and hierarchical linear modeling analyses yielded several findings: Males and females had similar developmental trajectories of educational expectations from adolescence to adulthood with the sample average expecting to attend college. Probabilities of expecting a professional occupation were lower for males than females. Adolescent educational and occupational expectations predicted corresponding attainment in adulthood, although the relationship varied by gender. Males who reported high occupational expectations in adolescence had higher occupational attainment in adulthood compared to males with low occupational expectations, whereas females' adult occupational attainment did not vary by their adolescent occupational expectations. Gender variation in expectations and attainment is discussed in light of historical changes, and future directions of research are proposed. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

This longitudinal study examined the development of educational and occupational expectations from adolescence to adulthood in relation to racial/ethnic and socioeconomic status (SES) group membership. Hierarchical linear modeling on national data (NELS:88) spanning 12 years yielded several findings: (a) African American participants reported the highest educational expectations, followed by Hispanic and Asian American/Pacific Islander, European American, and American Indian/Alaskan Native participants, (b) African American and Asian American/Pacific Islander participants reported the highest occupational expectations, followed by Hispanic, American Indian/Alaskan Native, and European American participants, (c) racial/ethnic group patterns persisted from adolescence to adulthood, and (d) SES positively predicted expectations. Results highlight the importance of considering SES when examining educational and occupational expectations across racial/ethnic groups. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

In this study, the authors examined the reliability, structural validity, and concurrent validity of Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scores in a group of 815 academically talented adolescents. Reliability estimates of the purported factors' scores were in the low to moderate range. Exploratory factor analysis supported a five-factor structure similar to the one proposed by Zimbardo and Boyd but also provided support for a six-factor structure that included an additional factor reflecting negative feelings about the future. ZTPI subscale intercorrelations were generally low, and intercorrelations between ZTPI subscale scores and other constructs were low, but in the expected directions. Results are discussed in light of the ZTPI's application to an adolescent-aged population. (Contains 5 tables.)

This study was conducted in an effort to generate information toward fostering academic outcomes among African American adolescents. Gender differences in African American adolescents' personal, educational, and occupational expectations were examined in relation to perceptions of neighborhood quality. Participants included 352 African American adolescents residing in an urban area. Measures were self-reported expectations and perceptions of neighborhood quality. Regression analyses indicated that (a) expectations were positively associated with perceptions of neighborhood quality, (b) female adolescents reported more positive expectations than male adolescents, and (c) the association between expectations and perceptions of neighborhood quality depended on gender, with male adolescents who rated their neighborhood higher in quality reporting higher personal and educational expectations than male adolescents who rated their neighborhood poorer in quality. Implications of this study for programs and research that focus on academic outcomes and neighborhoods of African American adolescents are discussed. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

Time perspective refers to thoughts and attitudes toward the past, the present, and the future and may underlie adolescents' decisions and behaviors about school and work. To develop a greater understanding of the topic we used focus group methodology to examine how adolescents conceptualized the past, the present, and the future. Nineteen adolescents aged 13 to 17 participated in six focus groups. Results from qualitative analyses suggested several patterns in adolescents' conceptualizations of the past, the present, and the future including absolute and fluid definitions, relations among temporal dimensions, and affective qualities. Further, responses were similar between genders, and included unsolicited mention of the relationship between socioeconomic status and time perspective. Findings are discussed in light of extant literature and directions are proposed for research on adolescent time perspective., Time perspective is a cognitive-motivational concept that refers to thoughts and attitudes toward the past, the present, and the future. Time perspective has been discussed as a factor that may [...]