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Come per le altre specie di interesse zootecnico, attualmente il consumo annuo pro capite in Italia è stimato come rapporto tra il peso totale delle carcasse disponibili al consumo e il numero di abitanti. Questo lavoro si è proposto di individuare dei coefficienti di conversione in carne, per ciascuna specie e categoria commerciale, idonei a stimare la quantità annuale pro capite di carne consumabile. Dall’esame dei dati presenti in letteratura e dalle indicazioni reperite presso Unaitalia (Associazione Nazionale dei Produttori Avicunicoli), è stato possibile stimare i coefficienti idonei a convertire il peso della carcassa in carne consumabile. Tali valori hanno mostrato un ampio range di variazione (dal 45% al 62%) in funzione della specie, ma anche delle diverse categorie commerciali del pollo (es. broiler, gallina ovaiola, cappone ecc.). Mediante l’applicazione di questi coefficienti, è stato possibile stimare che la quota pro capite annuale di carni avicunicole consumabili nel periodo considerato (2010-2015) è stata di 12,3 kg (di cui 8,9, 2,7 e 0,1 kg per polli/galline, tacchini e specie avicole minori, e 0,6 kg per i conigli), cioè ben inferiore rispetto al dato apparente pari a 20,1 kg. Tenendo conto delle ulteriori perdite che avvengono durante la fase di commercializzazione e a livello domestico, la quantità di carni avicunicole realmente disponibile risulta pari a 10,8 kg.

lectrical stunning is still the main method used worldwide in commercial poultry plants. The stunning procedures in water bath affect both bird welfare and meat quality attributes. The EU Council Regulation 1099/2009 on the protection of animal at the time of killing, established the minimum current flow through individual birds at a specified frequency to assure an effective stun that must last till the bird death. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of the application of different stunning current flows on incidence of hemorrhages (classified as 1=no lesion, 2=moderate and 3=severe lesion) and some quality traits (pHu, colour, drip and cooking losses and shear force) of chicken breast meat. A total of 12 flocks of broiler chickens each equally divided into light, medium and heavy-size, were submitted to standard stunning current flow (90 mA/bird, 400 Hz) (ST group) or to that reported in the EU regulation (150 mA/bird, 400 Hz) (EU group). Overall, the incidence of severe hemorrhages dramatically increased in EU group in comparison with ST one (53 vs 31%; P

Shell eggs are breathable material and, after laying, allow moisture and CO2 to permeate through the eggshell, with a consequent sharp rise in pH especially in albumen. At the same time, several properties change, such as albumen whipping behaviour and foam stability. According to previous researches, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) with high CO2 levels is very promising for shell egg quality traits maintenance, but the increase of the relative humidity in the package headspace, and the water condensation on the shell surface can promote microbe growth. The aim of this research was to study some quality modifications of eggs packed with different MAP active systems, during 28 days of storage at 21°C, with particular attention to physico-chemical (weight loss, pH, Haugh unit, colour) and microbiological traits (total microbial load). Fresh hen eggs were placed on plastic or carton supports and sealed in barrier pouches in air or in 100% CO2 MAP, with or without humidity absorber. The absorbing effect of the carton support and water absorbers was evident in terms of weight loss increase of packed eggs; as expected, the decrease of the relative humidity in the package headspace inhibited the microbes growth, with a maximum effect for eggs packed with the combined presence of carton support and water absorber. Eggs packaging reduced the pH increase and consequently the Haugh unit decrease. The greatest decline of egg quality was observed for not packed eggs, while eggs of all samples packed in 100% CO2 maintained about the initial values of Haugh unit for the whole storage period. The albumen pH of these samples was 1.5-2 points lower compared with the not packed product, for the whole storage period.

Selection for fast-growing and increasing breast meat yield may negatively impact muscle structure and meat quality traits. In the last years, two emerging meat defects have been arisen in breast fillets of fast-growing chicken hybrids: white striping characterized by white parallel striations in the direction of the muscle fibers and poor cohesion of muscle structure with fibers bundles which can be easily pulled away by fingers. A trial was conducted to compare productive performances, cut up yields and incidence of white striping and poor cohesion (absence=normal, presence classified in 2 levels as moderate and severe) in four of the most representative commercial chicken hybrids which were classified as either standard (SBY1 and SBY2) or high (HBY1 and HBY2) breast-yield. A total of 2,160 1-day-old male chicks were equally divided into four experimental groups of 9 replications each, raised in the same experimental conditions and fed the same commercial diets. Birds were slaughtered at about 3.6 kg live weight reached at 48 (SBY1 and HBY2) and 51 d of age (SBY2 and HBY1), respectively. Both HBY1 and HBY2 had a lower daily feed intake if compared with SBY1 and SBY2 (120 and 124 vs 131 and 130 g/day, P87%). However, HBY birds had an incidence of about 96% white striped fillets, while its occurrence in SBY groups did not exceed 90%. The overall incidence (moderate and severe) of muscle structure with poor cohesion also resulted extremely high (>90%). Indeed, only 10% of breast fillets from SBY1 birds resulted unaffected by this defect, while 40% of breast fillets from HBY2 showed poor cohesion with severe degree. In conclusion, from this study emerged that all the modern chicken hybrids here tested are affected by a high incidence of breast muscle defects which are particularly pronounced in high breast-yield birds.

The sequential feeding is a program which consists of administering diets with different nutrient contents for one ore more days cycles. The aim of this trial was to verify the effect of 24-h cycle sequential feeding on the quality of broiler meat as well as incidence of foot pad dermatitis. A total of 1,320 one-d-old male chicks Cobb 700 were divided in 2 groups of six replicates each. From 1 to 10 d of age all the chickens received the same pre-starter diet (EM 3,060 kcal/kg; CP 226 g/kg). The control group (CON) received for all day long, starter (EM 3,160 kcal/kg; CP 204.8 g/kg), grower (EM 3,220 kcal/kg; CP 191.8 g/kg) and finisher diets (EM 3,240 kcal/kg; CP 183.6 g/kg) respectively from 11-18, 19-38 and 39-44 d. The sequential feeding group (SF) received the same diets of the control for half-day and, for the remaining half, isoenergetic low protein diets (-20%). The breast of SF birds showed a lower pHu (5.76 vs 5.91; P

The study aims to evaluate the effect of different physical forms of hydrolysable tannins from sweet chestnut added to the broiler chicken feed on production performance and incidence of foot pad dermatitis (FPD). A total of 1,540 day old male Ross 708 chicks were split up into 4 groups and fed the same basal diets supplemented with 0 tannin (CON) or with 260 mg/kg feed of tannins either in powder (POW) or coated (COA) or granules (GRA) forms for the whole trial duration (48 d). Body growth rate and feed efficiency were not affected by powder or granule tannin forms, while they were significantly depressed by coated tannin. POW and GRA birds showed a lower incidence of FPD than both CON and COA (8 and 8% vs 21 and 28% respectively, P< 0.01). Litter moisture percentages of groups receiving the tannin supplementation were 3-3.6 points lower than those of the CON group. This trial demonstrated that the supplementation of hydrolysable tannins both in powder and granule forms may represent an interesting strategy to reduce the incidence of FPD and consequently to improve the general welfare status of broiler chickens.

Gas plasma is a ionized gas that can be used as sterilization agent at atmospheric conditions without damaging the materials with heat or chemical agents. Its bactericidal effect is due to a synergistic combination of UV photons, charged particles and reactive species such as atoms and radicals. The decontamination efficacy of gas plasma was evaluated both on table and hatching eggs. In particular, the Salmonella Enteritidis load on eggshells of experimental contaminated table eggs was investigated by surface plating at days 0, 1, 2, 3 8, 10, 15, 21, 24 and 28 post treatment. On hatching eggs, the loads of total mesophilic bacteria, Staphylococcus spp, Pseudomonas spp. and enterobacteriacae were investigated on gas plasma treated eggs at day 0 post treatment and at 22 post treatment (one day after hatching) and compared to the loads on formaldehyde fumigated eggs. The RBD prototype generates gas plasma able to significantly reduce the bacterial contamination on the surface of table and hatching eggs without detrimental effects on both the quality traits of table eggs and on hatching performance of hatching eggs, and suggest this promising technique as a valuable alternative to techniques employing toxic compounds potential dangerous for humans.

Descrizione delle caratteristiche chimiche e nutrizionali, delle norme di commercializzazione ed etichettatura delle uova, e dei sistemi di allevamento delle galline in relazione alle normative sulla protezione animale.

The aim of this study was to compare some physico-chemical properties of non packed eggs (control) with eggs packed in high barrier plastic pouches with two different atmospheres (air, 100% CO2) during 28 days of storage at 25°C. Fresh eggs and egg samples were analysed for weight loss, albumen pH and dissolved CO2, Haugh unit (HU), texture of the coagulated albumen and albumen foam stability. MAP was effective in the reduction of water loss. While the albumen of the control sample showed a constant increase of pH, attributed to the loss of CO2 through the shell pores, CO2-packed eggs showed a rapid reduction of this parameter. This phenomenon was responsible for the better maintenance of the HU value of CO2 samples. The foam stability was improved from CO2-MAP, while thermal coagulation of the albumen of these samples promotes the formation of a very alveolar and soft coagulum. The present research evidenced the beneficial effect of high CO2 MAP on egg freshness maintenance; in addition the exposition of shell egg to CO2 improved some technological performances of the albumen, showing also high potentiality in order to modulate the hardness of coagulated albumen.

The appearance of whole carcass and skin-on cut-up products is an important attribute that deeply affects the consumers choice. Skin pigmentation is affected mainly by genetics, concentration and dietary source of pigments, health status of the birds, and scalding/plucking conditions during slaughtering, although other factors might play an important role. Retailers request batches of broiler chicken carcasses characterized by uniform skin pigmentation to be sold as whole carcass or parts. The aim of this study was to evaluate the variability of skin colour of yellow skinned broilers reared under intensive conditions. For the study, a total of 2,300 medium size broiler chickens (2,300-2,500 g of live weight) from 23 flocks (100 birds/flock; n=12 flocks of males and n=11 flocks of females) were randomly selected in a single slaughterhouse. The colour measurements were carried out on both breast and thigh pterylae as well as on shanks skin adopting the L* a* b* system and using a Minolta colorimeter CR 300. The overall range in measured yellowness (b*) was fairly large for all skin colour measurement positions. For breast it was observed a mean value of 22.77 (SD=5.12) with values ranging from 7.45 to 39.12. Average values of thigh and shank were 20.23 (SD=5.02; range 1.99-37.82) and 53.99 (SD=8.13; range 24.22-78.65), respectively. Comparing male and female birds, a higher skin yellowness in females in all body parts, was observed. Yellowness values of breast and thigh were significantly correlated (r=0.85; P

In organic broiler chicken production the European regulation suggests to use indigenous breeds with slow-growing profile, high liveability, resistance to diseases and adaptability to outdoor local conditions. However in practice mostly fast-growing chickens are utilised due to their higher efficiency although they were selected for indoor rearing. This study aimed to compare the foot pad and carcass lesions as well as the behavior and plumage conditions of one egg-type slow-growing (SG) genotype (Brown Classic Lohman) and two meat-type strains, medium- (MG) (Naked neck Kabir) and fast-growing (FG) (Cobb 700), reared under organic conditions. A total of 360 1-d-old male chicks, equally divided into 3 experimental groups, were reared at a density of 10 birds/m2 in 3 poultry houses with outdoor pens (10 m2/bird) and fed the same organic diets. One week before slaughter, birds were evaluated for kinetic activity, tonic immobility and plumage conditions. At slaughtering, food-pad dermatitis (FPD) of all birds of each group were assessed by assigning them to one of 3 different classes: 0 = no remark (no lesion), 1 = mild lesions, 2 = severe lesions. The FPD score was obtained applying the formula reported in the EU proposal COM (2005) 221 final. Qualitative traits of carcass, such as skin damage and incidence of breast blisters were recorded. FG birds, in respect to MG and SG, performed the lowest kinetic activity, the highest percentage of laying behavior (90 vs 34 and 3%, respectively) and showed the higher value of tonic immobility (176 vs 114 and 77 sec). This finding indicated a scarce adaptation of FG to organic housing system also confirmed by their bad plumage conditions: total plumage score (15 vs 21 and 23) in particular for breast (1 vs 3 and 4), vent (2 vs 3 and 4), wings (2 vs 3 and 4) and tail (2 vs 3 and 3); respectively in FG, MG and SG birds. The incidence of foot pad lesion was dramatically higher in FG in comparison with MG and SG (Class 0= 3 vs 93 and 99%; class 1= 29 vs 7 and 1%; class 2= 68 vs 0 and 0% respectively). The FPD score was 151 for FG birds and less than 1 for the other genotypes. The occurrence of breast blisters of FG birds resulted noticeably higher (66%) than both MG (2%) and SG (0%). This trial confirms that genotype has a great effect on behavior and welfare conditions of birds and that MG and SG chickens are more suitable for organic rearing system.

Broiler chickens have been selected for a rapid growth rate as well as for high carcass yields, with particular regard to breast, and reared in intensive systems at high stocking density ranging from 30 to 40 kg liveweight/m2.These conditions lead to a worsening of the welfare status of birds. In Europe a specific directive for the protection of broiler chickens has been recently approved whereas in Italy there is not yet any legal regulation. The EU directive lays down minimum rules for the protection of chickens kept for meat production and gives indications on management practices with particular focus on stocking density, light regimen and air quality, training and guidance for people dealing with chickens as well as monitoring plans for holding and slaughterhouse. In this review the rearing factors influencing the welfare conditions of birds are described and detailed information on the effects of stocking density,%2

Capitolo di libro di testo per studenti universitari di Medicina Veterinaria e di Agraria. Viene descrittto l'allevamento della gallina produttrice di uova da consumo secondo i paragrafi sotto elencati. Generalità del sistema di produzione delle uova. Caratteristiche degli ibridi commerciali impiegati in allevamento. Allevamento della pollastra (allevamento a terra e in gabbia, debeccaggio, gestione e controllo della crescita, peso corporeo e maturità sessuale, illuminazione e maturità sessuale). Allevamento della ovaiola (sistemi di allevamento, gestione della temperatura e della ventilazione, illuminazione e programmi luce, prestazioni produttive, somministrazione del mangime e dell'acqua, muta forzata)

After the approval of a specific Directive on broiler chicken protection in EU, the debate on welfare has been focusing on turkey production. The aim of the trial was to evaluate if a stocking density lower than that applied under commercial conditions improves the production and welfare indexes of turkey as well as air and litter quality of the poultry house. 22,800 female one-d-old BUT turkeys were split in 2 experimental groups of 2 replicates each and allotted in 4 boxes of the same environmental controlled poultry house at a stocking density of 5 birds/sqm (Welfare=WLF) and 6 birds/sqm (Standard=STD). Feeder space allowances was of 2.7 and 2.0 cm/bird respectively for WLF and STD groups as well as drinker space was 1.4 and 1.2 cm/bird. Both groups were submitted to the same light and feeding regimens. WLF birds grew up faster and at the slaughtered age (100 d) weighted 300 g more than STD (8.6 vs 8.3 kg/bird). Feed intake and conversion were unaffected by the rearing conditions. Final stocking densities were 37.0 and 45.5 kg/sqm respectively for WLF and STD. The incidence of foot pad lesions (score 0= no lesion, 1= mild lesion and 2= severe lesion) and hock burns, indicators used to measure the welfare status, resulted slightly lower in WLF group reflecting the little differences observed in the moisture content of litter collected at 60, 90 and 100 days in WLF and in STD houses (39 vs 43 , 46 vs 47and 46 vs 47% respectively). The total nitrogen and pH of litter were respectively lower and higher in WLF than STD (3.68 vs 4.54% DM and 8.39 vs 7.91). Ammonia concentration of air was 39% higher in WLF boxes due either to the reduced ventilation rate (less animal heat production) or to the higher release from the litter due to its higher pH value. Reduced stocking density while improving the growth rate of animal worsen both litter and air quality of turkey houses.

The aim of this surveillance, performed along the whole laying hen cycle, has been to compare the bacterial contamination of 302 environment and egg samples collected in 2 conventional cage systems (N=186) and in 3 organic farms (N=116) in Italy. Total counts of aerobic bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae, as well as presence of Salmonella, with particular focus on the serotype Enteritidis, have been investigated on environmental swabs and dusts as well as on eggshells and on edible part of egg sampled at the hen age of 24, 48 and 72 weeks. The data were analysed by ANOVA using the GLM procedure of SAS (1989). The rate of Salmonella positive samples observed among environmental swabs and dusts, faeces, eggshells and edible part of eggs collected in conventional cage and organic systems did not show any statistically significative difference. The samples more frequently contaminated by Salmonella have been environmental dusts in both organic and conventional houses (i.e. 11.1 and 6.6%) as well as on faeces (i.e. 9.5 and 8%). Eggs with Salmonella positive eggshells were collected only within organic production units whereas their edible parts were Salmonella negative. This result demonstrated the inhibitory efficacy of antimicrobial enzymatic systems of the inner egg able to reduce the aerobic bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae which were always lower than the detection limits, corresponding to 10 and 1 colony forming unit (CFU) per g, respectively. Overall, total aerobic counts on both environmental samples and eggshells did not show a statistically significant increase over time. In fact, they ranged between 4.82 and 5.18 Log10 CFU/g and between 4.65 and 4.75 Log10 CFU/g within organic and conventional cage houses, respectively. The same trend has been observed for the Enterobacteriaceae total counts, ranging between 1.83 and 1.92 Log10 CFU/g and between 2.16 and 2.43 Log10 CFU/g within organic and conventional cage houses, respectively. These values justify the low rate of Salmonella contamination and agree with those described in literature. The total aerobic counts on environmental dusts sampled within organic and conventional cage houses did not show any statistical differences, whereas the Enterobacteriaceae count on environmental dusts sampled within organic units has been statistically lower than that observed in conventional cage houses (i.e. 3.45 vs 5.19 Log10 CFU/g). On the contrary, the total aerobic and Enterobacteriaceae counts on eggshells of eggs collected within organic and conventional cage houses did not show any statistical difference. In conclusion, from an environmental point of view, the overall microbial contamination is lower in the organic system, whereas the rate of Salmonella resulted higher in the eggshells of organic eggs. This result may be attributable to a higher incidence of dirty eggs, mainly contaminated with faeces, therefore improvements in hygienic management procedures might increase the egg safety.

A trial was carried out in Italy to assess the effect of rearing techniques on broiler welfare conditions with regard to the EU proposal “Laying down minimum rules for the protection of chickens kept for meat production” (COM 221, 2005). In five farms of the most representative poultry companies, productive traits, stocking densities, litter characteristics, broiler carcass injuries and foot pad lesions prevalence were controlled both during winter and summer in 279,640 birds. According to their live weight at slaughter the birds were divided into 3 commercial categories: light-size (1.6-1.7 kg), medium-size (2.4-2.5 kg), and heavy-size (3.2-3.8 kg). The stocking density ranged between 24 to 30 kg live weight/m2 in winter as well as in summer in accordance with the indication of the EU proposal. Mortality ranged from 2.5 to 9%. The highest mortality value was always recorded in the same farm in both seasons even if the stocking density was lower than in other farms. It should be stated that environmental conditions and particularly management other than stocking density have to be taken into account to assure good rearing conditions. Carcass injuries (skin and hock burn lesions, haematomas and bone fractures) and foot pad dermatitis were evaluated on samples of 200 birds/category/farm/season for a total of 4,800 birds. Foot pad dermatitis were classified into three groups, 0 (no lesions), 1 (minor lesions) and 2 (severe lesions) and foot pad score was calculated according to the formula reported in the EU proposal. The foot pad score of broilers reared in winter was always higher than 50 points, the threshold that has not to be exceeded to guarantee a good chicken welfare condition with stocking density ranging between 30 and 38 kg live weight/m2 (EU proposal, 2005). On the contrary, during summer the scores were always lower, ranging between 2.75 and 28.25. The prevalence of foot pad dermatitis was closely related to litter moisture: when the moisture content exceeded 37%, the foot pad score was higher than 50 points. Since at the present in Italy, stocking densities are in line with the EU proposal and, in spite of this, foot pad prevalence in winter is far higher than the advised EU score, a critical revision of the EU proposal should be encouraged in view of these outcomes.

A trial was carried out to evaluate the influence of improved housing conditions for broilers kept on litter on productivity, carcass and meat quality traits. A total of 33,000 Ross 508 female broiler chickens were divided into two groups Welfare (WLF) and Standard (STD) and reared under different stocking density (14 vs. 19 birds/sq m), litter (wood shaving) amount (3.5 vs. 2.5 kg/sq m) and light:dark regimen (18:6 vs. 23:1). Birds were slaughtered at 40 or 50 d of age. Environmental temperature and humidity as well as litter moisture did not change between the two housing conditions. WLF birds reached a higher body weight but had a slight worse feed efficiency, whereas no differences were found in carcass traits. Breast meat quality evaluation showed higher moisture content and poorer water holding capacity in WLF birds.