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Cyber-physical systems development often requires engineers to search for defects in their Simulink models. Search-based software testing (SBST) is a standard technology that supports this activity. To increase practical adaption, industries need empirical evidence of the effectiveness and efficiency of (existing) SBST techniques on benchmarks from different domains and of varying complexity. To address this industrial need, this paper presents our experience assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of SBST in generating failure-revealing test cases for cyber-physical systems requirements. Our study subject is within the electric bike (e-Bike) domain and concerns the software controller of an e-Bike motor, particularly its functional, regulatory, and safety requirements. We assessed the effectiveness and efficiency of HECATE, an SBST framework for Simulink models, to analyze two software controllers. HECATE successfully identified failure-revealing test cases for 83% (30 out of 36) of our experiments. It required, on average, 1 h 17 min 26 s (min = 11 min 56 s, max = 8 h 16 min 22 s, std = 1 h 50 min 34 s) to compute the failure-revealing test cases. The developer of the e-Bike model confirmed the failures identified by HECATE. We present the lessons learned and discuss the relevance of our results for industrial applications, the state of practice improvement, and the results' generalizability., Comment: 10 pages, 2 pages for references

Search-based software testing (SBST) of Simulink models helps find scenarios that demonstrate that the system can reach a state that violates one of its requirements. However, many SBST techniques for Simulink models rely on requirements being expressed in logical languages, limiting their adoption in industry. To help with the adoption, SBST methods and tools for Simulink models need to be integrated with tools used by engineers to specify requirements. This work presents the first black-box testing approach for Simulink models that supports Requirements Table (RT), a tool from Simulink Requirements Toolbox used by practitioners to express software requirements. We evaluated our solution by considering 60 model-RT combinations each made by a model and an RT. Our SBST framework returned a failure-revealing test case for 70% of the model-RT combinations. Remarkably, it identified a failure-revealing test case for three model-RT combinations for a cruise controller of an industrial simulator that other previously used tools were not able to find. The efficiency of our SBST solution is acceptable for practical applications and comparable with existing SBST tools that are not based on RT.

Cyber-physical systems (CPS) development requires verifying whether system behaviors violate their requirements. This analysis often considers system behaviors expressed by execution traces and requirements expressed by signal-based temporal properties. When an execution trace violates a requirement, engineers need to solve the trace diagnostic problem: They need to understand the cause of the breach. Automated trace diagnostic techniques aim to support engineers in the trace diagnostic activity. This paper proposes search-based trace-diagnostic (SBTD), a novel trace-diagnostic technique for CPS requirements. Unlike existing techniques, SBTD relies on evolutionary search. SBTD starts from a set of candidate diagnoses, applies an evolutionary algorithm iteratively to generate new candidate diagnoses (via mutation, recombination, and selection), and uses a fitness function to determine the qualities of these solutions. Then, a diagnostic generator step is performed to explain the cause of the trace violation. We implemented Diagnosis, an SBTD tool for signal-based temporal logic requirements expressed using the Hybrid Logic of Signals (HLS). We evaluated Diagnosis by performing 34 experiments for 17 trace-requirements combinations leading to a property violation and by assessing the effectiveness of SBTD in producing informative diagnoses and its efficiency in generating them on a time basis. Our results confirm that Diagnosis can produce informative diagnoses in practical time for most of our experiments (33 out of 34)., Comment: 14 pages plus two for references

Automotive software development requires engineers to test their systems to detect violations of both functional and drivability requirements. Functional requirements define the functionality of the automotive software. Drivability requirements refer to the driver's perception of the interactions with the vehicle; for example, they typically require limiting the acceleration and jerk perceived by the driver within given thresholds. While functional requirements are extensively considered by the research literature, drivability requirements garner less attention. This industrial paper describes our experience assessing the usefulness of an automated search-based software testing (SBST) framework in generating failure-revealing test cases for functional and drivability requirements. Our experience concerns the VI-CarRealTime simulator, an industrial virtual modeling and simulation environment widely used in the automotive domain. We designed a Cruise Control system in Simulink for a four-wheel vehicle, in an iterative fashion, by producing 21 model versions. We used the SBST framework for each version of the model to search for failure-revealing test cases revealing requirement violations. Our results show that the SBST framework successfully identified a failure-revealing test case for 66.7% of our model versions, requiring, on average, 245.9s and 3.8 iterations. We present lessons learned, reflect on the generality of our results, and discuss how our results improve the state of practice., Comment: 10 pages papaer plus 2 of bibliography. 10 figures and 6 tables

Surrogate-assisted search-based testing (SA-SBT) aims to reduce the computational time for testing compute-intensive systems. Surrogates enhance testing techniques by improving test case generation focusing the testing budget on the most critical portions of the input domain. In addition, they can serve as approximations of the system under test (SUT) to predict tests' results instead of executing the tests on compute-intensive SUTs. This article reflects on the existing SA-SBT techniques, particularly those applied to system-level testing and often facilitated using simulators or complex test beds. Our objective is to synthesize different heuristic algorithms and evaluation methods employed in existing SA-SBT techniques and present a comprehensive view of SA-SBT solutions. In addition, by critically reviewing our previous work on SA-SBT, we aim to identify the limitations in our proposed algorithms and evaluation methods and to propose potential improvements. We present a taxonomy that categorizes and contrasts existing SA-SBT solutions and highlights key research gaps. To identify the evaluation challenges, we conduct two replication studies of our past SA-SBT solutions: One study uses industrial advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) and the other relies on a Simulink model benchmark. We compare our results with those of the original studies and identify the difficulties in evaluating SA-SBT techniques, including the impact of different contextual factors on results generalization and the validity of our evaluation metrics. Based on our taxonomy and replication studies, we propose future research directions, including re-considerations in the current evaluation metrics used for SA-SBT solutions, utilizing surrogates for fault localization and repair in addition to testing, and creating frameworks for large-scale experiments by applying SA-SBT to multiple SUTs and simulators., Comment: Submitted to the Information and Software Technology Journal

Simulation-based software testing supports engineers in finding faults in Simulink models. It typically relies on search algorithms that iteratively generate test inputs used to exercise models in simulation to detect design errors. While simulation-based software testing techniques are effective in many practical scenarios, they are typically not fully integrated within the Simulink environment and require additional manual effort. Many techniques require engineers to specify requirements using logical languages that are neither intuitive nor fully supported by Simulink, thereby limiting their adoption in industry. This work presents HECATE, a testing approach for Simulink models using Test Sequence and Test Assessment blocks from Simulink Test. Unlike existing testing techniques, HECATE uses information from Simulink models to guide the search-based exploration. Specifically, HECATE relies on information provided by the Test Sequence and Test Assessment blocks to guide the search procedure. Across a benchmark of 16 Simulink models from different domains and industries, our comparison of HECATE with the state-of-the-art testing tool S-TALIRO indicates that HECATE is both more effective (more failure-revealing test cases) and efficient (less iterations and computational time) than S-TALIRO for ~94% and ~81% of benchmark models respectively. Furthermore, HECATE successfully generated a failure-revealing test case for a representative case study from the automotive domain demonstrating its practical usefulness.

Search-based software testing (SBST) typically relies on fitness functions to guide the search exploration toward software failures. There are two main techniques to define fitness functions: (a) automated fitness function computation from the specification of the system requirements, and (b) manual fitness function design. Both techniques have advantages. The former uses information from the system requirements to guide the search toward portions of the input domain more likely to contain failures. The latter uses the engineers' domain knowledge. We propose ATheNA, a novel SBST framework that combines fitness functions automatically generated from requirements specifications and those manually defined by engineers. We design and implement ATheNA-S, an instance of ATheNA that targets Simulink models. We evaluate ATheNA-S by considering a large set of models from different domains. Our results show that ATheNA-S generates more failure-revealing test cases than existing baseline tools and that the difference between the runtime performance of ATheNA-S and the baseline tools is not statistically significant. We also assess whether ATheNA-S could generate failure-revealing test cases when applied to two representative case studies: one from the automotive domain and one from the medical domain. Our results show that ATheNA-S successfully revealed a requirement violation in our case studies.

Most of the trace-checking tools only yield a Boolean verdict. However, when a property is violated by a trace, engineers usually inspect the trace to understand the cause of the violation; such manual diagnostic is time-consuming and error-prone. Existing approaches that complement trace-checking tools with diagnostic capabilities either produce low-level explanations that are hardly comprehensible by engineers or do not support complex signal-based temporal properties. In this paper, we propose TD-SB-TemPsy, a trace-diagnostic approach for properties expressed using SB-TemPsy-DSL. Given a property and a trace that violates the property, TD-SB-TemPsy determines the root cause of the property violation. TD-SB-TemPsy relies on the concepts of violation cause, which characterizes one of the behaviors of the system that may lead to a property violation, and diagnoses, which are associated with violation causes and provide additional information to help engineers understand the violation cause. As part of TD-SB-TemPsy, we propose a language-agnostic methodology to define violation causes and diagnoses. In our context, its application resulted in a catalog of 34 violation causes, each associated with one diagnosis, tailored to properties expressed in SB-TemPsy-DSL. We assessed the applicability of TD-SB-TemPsy on two datasets, including one based on a complex industrial case study.The results show that TD-SB-TemPsy could finish within a timeout of 1 min for ~83.66% of the trace-property combinations in the industrial dataset, yielding a diagnosis in ~99.84% of these cases. Moreover, it also yielded a diagnosis for all the trace-property combinations in the other dataset. These results suggest that our tool is applicable and efficient in most cases.

Software verification may yield spurious failures when environment assumptions are not accounted for. Environment assumptions are the expectations that a system or a component makes about its operational environment and are often specified in terms of conditions over the inputs of that system or component. In this article, we propose an approach to automatically infer environment assumptions for Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). Our approach improves the state-of-the-art in three different ways: First, we learn assumptions for complex CPS models involving signal and numeric variables; second, the learned assumptions include arithmetic expressions defined over multiple variables; third, we identify the trade-off between soundness and informativeness of environment assumptions and demonstrate the flexibility of our approach in prioritizing either of these criteria. We evaluate our approach using a public domain benchmark of CPS models from Lockheed Martin and a component of a satellite control system from LuxSpace, a satellite system provider. The results show that our approach outperforms state-of-the-art techniques on learning assumptions for CPS models, and further, when applied to our industrial CPS model, our approach is able to learn assumptions that are sufficiently close to the assumptions manually developed by engineers to be of practical value.

Cyber-physical systems combine software and physical components. Specification-driven trace-checking tools for CPS usually provide users with a specification language to express the requirements of interest, and an automatic procedure to check whether these requirements hold on the execution traces of a CPS. Although there exist several specification languages for CPS, they are often not sufficiently expressive to allow the specification of complex CPS properties related to the software and the physical components and their interactions. In this paper, we propose (i) the Hybrid Logic of Signals (HLS), a logic-based language that allows the specification of complex CPS requirements, and (ii) ThEodorE, an efficient SMT-based trace-checking procedure. This procedure reduces the problem of checking a CPS requirement over an execution trace, to checking the satisfiability of an SMT formula. We evaluated our contributions by using a representative industrial case study in the satellite domain. We assessed the expressiveness of HLS by considering 212 requirements of our case study. HLS could express all the 212 requirements. We also assessed the applicability of ThEodorE by running the trace-checking procedure for 747 trace-requirement combinations. ThEodorE was able to produce a verdict in 74.5% of the cases. Finally, we compared HLS and ThEodorE with other specification languages and trace-checking tools from the literature. Our results show that, from a practical standpoint, our approach offers a better trade-off between expressiveness and performance.

This volume contains the proceedings of the First Workshop on Agents and Robots for reliable Engineered Autonomy (AREA 2020), co-located with the 24th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI 2020). AREA brings together researchers from autonomous agents, software engineering and robotic communities, as combining knowledge coming from these research areas may lead to innovative approaches that solve complex problems related with the verification and validation of autonomous robotic systems.

Black-box testing has been extensively applied to test models of Cyber-Physical systems (CPS) since these models are not often amenable to static and symbolic testing and verification. Black-box testing, however, requires to execute the model under test for a large number of candidate test inputs. This poses a challenge for a large and practically-important category of CPS models, known as compute-intensive CPS (CI-CPS) models, where a single simulation may take hours to complete. We propose a novel approach, namely ARIsTEO, to enable effective and efficient testing of CI-CPS models. Our approach embeds black-box testing into an iterative approximation-refinement loop. At the start, some sampled inputs and outputs of the CI-CPS model under test are used to generate a surrogate model that is faster to execute and can be subjected to black-box testing. Any failure-revealing test identified for the surrogate model is checked on the original model. If spurious, the test results are used to refine the surrogate model to be tested again. Otherwise, the test reveals a valid failure. We evaluated ARIsTEO by comparing it with S-Taliro, an open-source and industry-strength tool for testing CPS models. Our results, obtained based on five publicly-available CPS models, show that, on average, ARIsTEO is able to find 24% more requirements violations than S-Taliro and is 31% faster than S-Taliro in finding those violations. We further assessed the effectiveness and efficiency of ARIsTEO on a large industrial case study from the satellite domain. In contrast to S-Taliro, ARIsTEO successfully tested two different versions of this model and could identify three requirements violations, requiring four hours, on average, for each violation.

Matlab/Simulink is a development and simulation language that is widely used by the Cyber-Physical System (CPS) industry to model dynamical systems. There are two mainstream approaches to verify CPS Simulink models: model testing that attempts to identify failures in models by executing them for a number of sampled test inputs, and model checking that attempts to exhaustively check the correctness of models against some given formal properties. In this paper, we present an industrial Simulink model benchmark, provide a categorization of different model types in the benchmark, describe the recurring logical patterns in the model requirements, and discuss the results of applying model checking and model testing approaches to identify requirements violations in the benchmarked models. Based on the results, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of model testing and model checking. Our results further suggest that model checking and model testing are complementary and by combining them, we can significantly enhance the capabilities of each of these approaches individually. We conclude by providing guidelines as to how the two approaches can be best applied together., Comment: 10 pages + 2 page references

Test automation requires automated oracles to assess test outputs. For cyber physical systems (CPS), oracles, in addition to be automated, should ensure some key objectives: (i) they should check test outputs in an online manner to stop expensive test executions as soon as a failure is detected; (ii) they should handle time- and magnitude-continuous CPS behaviors; (iii) they should provide a quantitative degree of satisfaction or failure measure instead of binary pass/fail outputs; and (iv) they should be able to handle uncertainties due to CPS interactions with the environment. We propose an automated approach to translate CPS requirements specified in a logic-based language into test oracles specified in Simulink -- a widely-used development and simulation language for CPS. Our approach achieves the objectives noted above through the identification of a fragment of Signal First Order logic (SFOL) to specify requirements, the definition of a quantitative semantics for this fragment and a sound translation of the fragment into Simulink. The results from applying our approach on 11 industrial case studies show that: (i) our requirements language can express all the 98 requirements of our case studies; (ii) the time and effort required by our approach are acceptable, showing potentials for the adoption of our work in practice, and (iii) for large models, our approach can dramatically reduce the test execution time compared to when test outputs are checked in an offline manner.