Search

A review is presented of the role of algorithms in learning and instruction. The paper first describes an algorithm as a procedure guaranteed to produce a correct result and lists its features as: 1) having a reasonably finite number of unambiguously defined operations; 2) having zero or more inputs from a specified domain; 3) having outputs with a relationship to the inputs; and 4) having operations sufficiently simple to be completed in a finite period. The second section reviews the use of algorithms to describe cognitive processes in learning and problem-solving; and the third, their use in developing instructional strategies. The fourth part of the paper examines the use of algorithms in task analysis; and the following section, their application to instructional materials. The concluding segment discusses research issues related to the use of algorithms in learning and instruction, including the order in which the operations of and paths through algorithms are best taught, the demonstration of the interrelationships among an algorithm's components, and methods of teaching students to synthesize the steps of an algorithm, including the retrogression approach. (Author/PB)

In a review of over 25 empirical investigations of effects of communicating behavioral objectives to students, several trends were apparent. Advance knowledge of behavioral objectives led to improved posttest performance in five of ten studies and to improved retention in two of three instances. Only two of seven studies found an interaction between knowledge of objectives and type of learning: in one case knowledge acquisition but not comprehension was facilitated, while in the other knowledge of objectives interfered on a problem-solving task, but not on a discrimination task. A third group of studies reported interactions between availability of objectives and reasoning ability, personality characteristics, and state anxiety. Finally, when coupled with complete learner control of the course, knowledge of objectives decreased learning time. (Author/RH)

A study was made of the effects of presenting instructional objectives to students in a graduate computer-managed course. It was expected that the availability of behaviorally stated objectives would reduce test item response latency, increase study time, and reduce state anxiety. Since all subjects were required to reach criterion on each unit of the course, no differences were expected on posttest performance. Results showed no significant difference found in study time or test item response latency. The availability of objectives did significantly reduce the level of anxiety state. Apparently graduate students were able to figure out the course very rapidly, so that the availability of objectives had little or no effect. (JY)

Effects of item difficulty sequencing on performance and on post state anxiety were investigated using a timed mathematics aptitude test. The subjects were randomly assigned to a random, easy-to-hard, or hard-to-easy difficulty sequence group. The hard-to-easy sequence group performance was significantly lower than either the random or easy-to-hard sequence groups. Though not statistically different, 1) the mathematics aptitude test scores of four achievement anxiety types grouped using the Achievement Anxiety Test, and 2) levels of state anxiety provoked by the three difficulty sequences were in the predicted direction. (Author)

The effects of behavioral objectives and/or criterion test items on the learning process were investigated. The 123 subjects were randomly assigned to either an example-only, an objective-example, a test-example, or an objective-test-example group. Objectives significantly increased the amount of time subjects spent studying the example displays. A significant ability by treatment interaction revealed that display latency had a negative relationship to reasoning ability for subjects in the test-example and objective-test-example groups, but was not related to reasoning for subjects in the example-only and objective-example groups. Differential relationships between state-anxiety and treatments were also observed. (Author/JK)

To replicate and extend the results of a previous study, this project investigated the effects of behavioral objectives and/or rules on computer-based learning task performance. The 133 subjects were randomly assigned to an example-only, objective-example, rule example, or objective-rule example group. The availability of rules and/or objectives reduced the number of examples required to meet criterion performance and increased posttest performance. In addition, rules reduced display latency and test item response latency and increased retention test performance. Rules also decreased the level of within-task state anxiety. (Author/RH)

Several concepts and techniques used to design computer simulation of human performance were employed in developing an information processing approach to task analysis. This new approach is compared and contrasted with Gagne's hierarchical task analysis model. Two conceptual levels of a behavioral objective are identified. One level, referred to as the "task level," is concerned with the determination of the subskills that are required to learn and perform the terminal objective of a task. The second level, the "rule level," is concerned with the discovery of order relationships between subskills. Neither hierarchical nor information processing analysis would be sufficient for all types of tasks. A hierarchical analysis would be appropriate where lower ordered skills generate positive transfer to higher level skills, while an information processing analysis would be utilized where the output of one task subskill or operation is required as input for a succeeding operation (behavior chaining). (Author/JY)

The effects of behavioral objectives and/or rules on the learning process were examined using a hierarchical imaginary science called the Science of Xenograde Systems. The learning task was presented by a computer assisted instruction system to 130 introductory educational psychology and science education students. After being given a battery of six cognitive ability tests, all students were randomly assigned to either an example only, an objective-example, a rule-example or an objective-rule-example treatment. The presentation of rules significantly reduced the number of examples and total time required to complete the task and increased performance on a transfer test. The presentation of objectives did not significantly affect total or display latency, but significantly reduced the requirement for reasoning ability. It was concluded that objectives have orienting and organizing effects which dispose students to attend to, process, and structure relevant information in accordance with the given objectives. (Author/FL)

The general characteristics of algorithms are outlined and related to instructional applications. Major issues and research questions are discussed. (Author/STS)

Investigates the effects of three different item-difficulty sequenced test forms on performance and the anxiety-type by item-difficulty sequence interaction described by Munz and Smouse. Also investigates the assumption of Munz and Smouse that item-difficulty sequences are progressively more arousing or provoking in the order: random, easy-to-hard, hard-to-easy. (RC)

Using a computer assisted learning task, subjects were assigned to an example-only, objective-example, rule-example, or objective-rule-example treatment. The subjects were required to meet minimum criterion performance at each level of the task. The findings discuss the use of objectives, rules, and examples on student performance. (Author/SE)

The effects of presenting objectives to students in a graduate computer-managed course were investigated. The hypotheses, based on previous laboratory studies, that objectives would decrease test-item-latency, increase study time, and facilitate performance on unit tests was tested. (Editor/RK)

Results obtained from the research were inconsistent, indicating no support for the thesis that objectives aid learning. Research recommendations are submitted, with conclusions drawn reflecting the positive attitudes toward presenting objectives. (JB)

A report on the results of an informal assessment of students' perceptions of how they actually used behavioral objectives in a graduate level course. (Author)