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Accumulating evidence shows that nut consumption beneficially affects health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between the intake of nuts, focusing on their mineral contents, and the risk of hypertension in nationally representative samples in Korea. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 12,113 subjects (4762 men and 7351 women) aged 19–64 years using raw data from KNHANES 2016–2019. Daily intake of 20 nuts and 9 minerals from nuts was assessed using the 24-h recall method. The risk of hypertension according to the median mineral intake from nuts and nuts themselves was assessed using logistic regression analysis with adjustment for potential confounders. The average daily nut intake was 4.34 g for females and 3.78 g males. Among nut intake, chestnuts represented the highest value at 0.95 g/day, followed by peanuts (0.72 g/day), almonds (0.62 g/day), sesame seeds (0.62 g/day), perilla seeds (0.33 g/day), and walnuts (0.32 g/day). The daily intake of minerals from nuts was significantly higher in the nut-overmedian (OM) group than in the nut-undermedian (UM) group. Regarding mineral intake from nuts, each mineral-UM group showed higher odds of hypertension than the mineral-OM group in women, but not in men. After adjustment for potential confounders, an inverse association between nut consumption, including minerals obtained from nuts, and hypertension prevalence, especially in women, was observed. Based on our results, it is suggested that incorporation of nuts into a daily diet may yield beneficial effects and lower the risk of hypertension in adult Korean women.

The purpose of this study was to develop a sodium index, which is a tool for estimating and assessing sodium intake easily and quickly, to assist in the prevention of various diseases induced by excess sodium intake in Korean adults.The 24-h urine collection and dietary behavior surveys were performed on 640 healthy people in 4 regions of South Korea, and an equation for the estimation of 24-h sodium intake was developed. The validity and reliability of the equation were verified with 200 adults. The sodium index was developed by converting the estimated sodium intake using the equation. Finally, the sodium intake status of 1,600 adults was assessed using the sodium index.The equation included sex, age, body mass index, eating habit and dietary behaviors related to sodium intake. In validity test of the equation, the mean bias between sodium intake using 24-h urine analysis and using the equation from the Bland-Altman plots was -1.5 mg/day. The sensitivity and specificity of the equation for estimation of sodium intake were 80.5% and 64.4%, respectively. In the reliability test of the equation, there was no significant difference between the first and second sodium intakes calculated using the equations, and Spearman's correlation coefficient between the 2 sodium intakes was 0.98. Sodium intake can be assessed as 'very moderate' for 75-100 on the sodium index, 'moderate' for 100-150, 'careful' for less than 75 or 150-200, and 'severe' for 250 or more. When sodium intake was assessed using the sodium index in 1,600 subjects, 54.3% and 24.3% of the subjects were assessed to be in the 'careful' and 'severe' categories, respectively.Using a simple questionnaire, the sodium index can be used to monitor and assess sodium intake status, assisting in nutrition education and counseling in a large population.

This study aimed to clarify the association between the frequency of dining out and the risk of obesity, diabetes mellitus, and dyslipidemia among Korean adults. This cross-sectional study surveyed 640 participants aged 20-69 years in Korea. Daily intake of energy, fat, protein, and cholesterol significantly increased as the frequency of dining out increased (

Previous studies have reported that silicon (Si) has a positive effect on bone health, immune response, and cognitive health. However, basic and important studies on evaluating dietary intake and urinary excretion of Si are limited. The aim of this study was to evaluate dietary Si intake and urinary excretion according to gender and age in healthy and free-living Korean adults and to investigate the relationship between them with gender. In this cross-sectional study, anthropometric measurements, dietary assessment using a food record, and a 24-h urine collection were conducted in 80 healthy Korean adults (40 males and 40 females; groups of 8 subjects representing each decade of life [20s to 60s]) with self-selected diet. The dietary assessment and 24-h urine collection were performed twice at intervals of 3 days. Daily intake of Si was estimated using a Si database of food composition. Urinary excretion of Si was analyzed using ICP-OES. The mean dietary Si intake was 22.8 mg/day for men and 19.3 mg/day for women without significant difference according to their gender and age. Si intake was the highest from vegetables both in men and women, followed by grains, beverages, and fruits in men and by grains, fruits, and milks in women. Urinary Si excretion was significantly higher in men (9.8 mg/day) than women (9.3 mg/day), and significantly increased with age only in women. Regarding the relationship between dietary Si intake and urinary Si excretion, a significantly positive correlation was found in men, but not in women. Longitudinal and balance studies to elucidate gender differences in Si nutrition are needed.

Calcium and phosphorus intake showed a significant negative relationship with osteosarcopenia and osteosarcopenic adiposity in Korean adults aged 50 years or older. Osteosarcopenic adiposity (OSA) is a syndrome accompanied by low bone mass, low muscle mass, and adiposity, and the association of the individual OSA components with dietary factors is considerable. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between the intake of dietary calcium and phosphorus and individual and/or combined bone-, muscle-, and fat mass-related abnormalities in body composition (components of OSA). This study investigated the relationship between OSA-related components and the intake of calcium and phosphorus in subjects aged 50 years and older (n = 7007) using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) from 2008 to 2011. After adjusting for various confounding factors that affect OSA, the groups with a low calcium intake (below the median value) had a significantly higher risk of osteosarcopenia (OR = 1.768, 95% CI: 1.018–3.073; p = 0.0432) and OSA (OR = 1.505, 95% CI: 1.040–2.180; p = 0.0304) compared to the groups with a high calcium intake (equal to or above the median value). In addition, phosphorus intake showed a significant negative relationship with sarcopenic adiposity. In conclusion, the intake of calcium is associated with a lower risk of osteosarcopenia and OSA in Korean adults aged 50 years and older. These results will serve as baseline data on mineral intake for the management of multiple OSA-related components.

Silicon (Si) is important for the growth and development of bone and connective tissues. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Si supplementation on the balance of calcium (Ca), Si, magnesium (Mg), and bone status in growing female rats fed diets with different Ca levels. Sixty 6-week-old female Wistar rats were divided into 6 groups and fed diets with different levels of Ca (0.1, 0.5, 1.5%) and Si (5, 500 ppm) for 10 weeks. Experimental groups were as follows: Low-Ca group (LCa; 0.1% Ca), Low-Ca with Si supplementation group (LCaSi), adequate-Ca group (ACa; 0.5% Ca), adequate-Ca with Si supplementation group (ACaSi), high-Ca group (HCa; 1.5% Ca), and high-Ca with Si supplementation group (HCaSi). Si retention significantly increased by Si supplementation and significantly decreased by high-Ca diet (1.5%). Mg retention significantly decreased by high-Ca diet. Serum Ca and Si contents were not significantly different among the 6 groups. Low-Ca diet significantly increased serum osteoclain and C-telopeptide cross-link of type 1 collagen (CTx) levels, and Si supplementation significantly decreased CTx levels in the low-Ca diet group. Bone mineral density was significantly increased along with Ca increase in the diet, but was decreased by Si supplementation in the high-Ca diet. Rats in the adequate-Ca diet group had a significant increase in strength of tibia after Si supplementation. These findings indicate that the effect of Si supplementation on bone metabolism may differ according to the Ca-intake level in growing females. Although further research is needed, when supplementing Si to improve bone health in growing females, Ca-intake level should be considered.

In the current years, it has now become necessary to establish standards for micronutrient intake based on scientific evidence. This review discusses issues related to the development of the 2020 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRI) for magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), and future research directions. Following issues were encountered when establishing the KDRI for these minerals. First, characteristics of Korean subjects need to be applied to estimate nutrient requirements. When calculating the estimated average requirement (EAR), the KDRI used the results of balance studies for Mg absorption and factorial analysis for Zn, which is defined as the minimum amount to offset endogenous losses for Zn and Mg. For Cu, a combination of indicators, such as depletion/repletion studies, were applied, wherein all reference values were based on data obtained from other countries. Second, there was a limitation in that it was difficult to determine whether reference values of Mg, Zn, and Cu intakes in the 2020 KDRI were achievable. This might be due to the lack of representative previous studies on intakes of these nutrients, and an insufficient database for Mg, Zn, and Cu contents in foods. This lack of database for mineral content in food poses a problem when evaluating the appropriateness of intake. Third, data was insufficient to assess the adequacy of Mg, Zn, and Cu intakes from supplements when calculating reference values, considering the rise in both demand and intake of mineral supplements. Mg is more likely to be consumed as a multi-nutrient supplement in combination with other minerals than as a single supplement. Moreover, Zn-Cu interactions in the body need to be considered when determining the reference intake values of Zn and Cu. It is recommended to discuss these issues present in the 2020 KDRI development for Mg, Zn, and Cu intakes in a systematic way, and to find relevant solutions.

Objective The aim of this study was to explore the association between sodium intake, as assessed by 24-h urinary sodium excretion, and various obesity parameters among South Korean adults. The associations of 24-h urinary sodium excretion and sodium intake calculated from the dietary questionnaire with obesity parameters also were compared. Methods This multicenter, cross-sectional study analyzed data of 640 healthy adults from eight provinces in South Korea. Obesity was assessed by body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR). Mean 24-h urinary sodium excretion was calculated from repeatedly collected 24-h urine samples. Participants’ dietary intake was assessed by 24-h dietary recall interview on the days before 24-h urine collection. Results In both sexes, the means of all anthropometric measurements tended to increase proportionally with 24-h urinary sodium excretion quartiles, regardless of adjustment. Men in the highest quartile (Q4) of 24-h urinary sodium excretion had increased odds of obesity (as assessed by BMI, WC, WHR, and WHtR) compared with men in the three lower quartiles (Q1–Q3) of 24-h urinary sodium excretion. Women in Q4 of 24-h urinary sodium excretion exhibited a higher chance of general obesity and abdominal obesity. Sodium intake calculated from the dietary questionnaire was not significantly associated with obesity in either sex. Conclusions In Korean adults, there was a positive association between higher sodium intake as assessed by 24-h urinary sodium excretion and obesity independent of energy intake.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in night eating status according to adolescents’ body mass index (BMI). Design/methodology/approach This was a cross-sectional study that included a total of 688 middle-school students. The subjects were categorized as underweight, normal weight and overweight according to their BMI, and their night eating intake patterns, night eating menu preference and intake frequency were compared and analyzed. Findings With regard to their night eating frequency, 39.8 per cent replied almost never, while 24.3 per cent replied once a week and less and 22.5 per cent replied two to three times a week. Among 11 night eating menus, the preference for fast foods, confectioneries, street foods and noodles was significantly higher in the underweight group than in the overweight group. The intake frequency of night eating menus such as fast foods, confectioneries and breads increased in the following order: overweight, normal and underweight group. The underweight group had a higher frequency of night eating, and they preferred to eat snacks more frequently from their night eating menu. Originality/value In conclusion, it is necessary to form positive dietary habits including nighttime eating for proper dietary management of adolescents.

The objective of this study was to assess the nutritional value of edible insects with a focus on minerals. Proximate analysis and mineral content were analyzed for five types of dried edible insects currently sold in Korean markets including Tenebrio molitor, Oxya chinensis sinuosa, Bombyx mori, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis, and Verlarifictorus aspersus. On a dry weight basis, the highest content of fat was in Tenebrio molitor and of protein in Oxya chinensis sinuosa. Energy content was highest in Tenebrio molitor at 23.9 MJ/kg dry weight. Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis had the highest concentration of calcium (349.2–2282.0 mg/kg dry weight), of phosphorus (5105.0–8875.1 mg/kg dry weight), and of magnesium (502.2–2522.9 mg/kg dry weight). Zinc and copper concentrations were highest in Verlarifictorus aspersus. Iron, manganese, and molybdenum concentrations were highest in Oxya chinensis sinuosa. Last, the concentration of boron was highest in Tenebrio molitor. Edible insects may be a source of mineral nutrition.

OBJECTIVES: Home meal replacements (HMRs) are convenient foods that are cooked or semi-cooked to eat directly or after simple cooking in substitution for traditional home meals. The purpose of this study was to assess nutritional value focusing on minerals of HMRs currently sold in Korea. METHODS: This study examined nutritional content in 118 popular HMRs through nutrition labeling, analyzed the mineral content of 30 typical HMRs, and assessed the nutritional value focusing on minerals in the 8 types of HMRs (cup-rice with soup, cup-rice, instant rice, porridge, soup, stew, sauce, and side dish). RESULTS: The weight per HMR package of single serving was the highest for the porridge HMR. The energy and carbohydrate content per HMR package were the highest in cup-rice and instant rice, while the sugar, protein, and fat contents were the highest in side dish. The Na content per HMR package was the highest in cup-rice with soup. There was no significant difference in Ca content per package among HMR types. However, the contents of Mg, Fe, Cu, and Zn were the highest in cup-rice. Regarding the mineral's Index of Nutritional Quality (INQ), Ca did not reach 1 except for 1.4 of stew, while Fe was high over 2 except for soup and sauce without significant difference according to HMR type. And, Mg and Zn were the highest in stew, and Cu was in porridge. When instant rice was mixed with stew, sauce, and side dish, respectively, the protein INQ was significantly increased in the combination of instant rice with side dish, but the mineral INQ was not significantly changed except for a decrease in Cu. CONCLUSIONS: When HMR is consumed as a meal, protein meets the Recommended Intake (RI) if the energy requirement is met, but minerals such as Ca, Mg, and Zn cannot meet the RI. Therefore, the findings suggest that consumers select HMRs with food sources of these minerals and that producers of HMRs develop products containing higher amounts of these minerals. FUNDING SOURCES: None.

Manganese (Mn) is an essential element for the body’s composition and is required for various functions, including nutrient metabolism, immune system function, and antioxidant ability. However, there are insufficient data on the nutritional status of Mn. In this study, we aimed to analyze the relationship between Mn intake and urinary excretion in Korean adults. A twice dietary intake survey using a 24-h recall method was conducted on 640 adults (320 men and 320 women), aged 20 to 69 years. Eighty 24-h urine samples were also twice collected and urinary Mn excretions were analyzed. Results indicated that total Mn intake per day was 4.1 mg for men and 3.9 mg for women (p < 0.05). Mn intake per 1000 kcal of energy consumption was significantly higher in women than in men (2.0 mg/1,000 kcal vs. 2.2 mg/1000 kcal, p < 0.01). Additionally, Mn intake as a percentage of Adequate Intake was 103.0% for men and 110.3% for women (p < 0.05). Mn was mostly consumed from cereals (1.78 mg/day for men and 1.53 mg/day for women), followed by vegetables, seasonings, fruits, and pulses. The main food sources of Mn were rice (27.8% for men, 22.0% for women), kimchi (3.5% for men, 1.4% for women), and tofu (2.8% for men, 2.3% for women); the percentage of Mn consumed from 20 types of foods was 55.6% (women) to 60.4% (men). Urinary Mn excretion was negatively correlated with Mn intake from cereals and positively with mushrooms only for women after adjusting for confounding factors (p < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary Mn intake by Korean adults was adequate to meet the Dietary Reference Intake, but the relationship between Mn intake and urinary excretion was not clear.

Magnesium (Mg) is an essential nutrient as a structural constituent of bone and regulator of >300 enzymes. However, studies on intake and urinary excretion of Mg are limited. The purpose of this study was to evaluate Mg intake and its relation to 24-h urinary excretion in healthy adults. Anthropometric measurements and dietary intake by the 24-h recall method were conducted in 80 adults aged 21–69 (average 44.3) years. Urine was collected for 24 h on the day following the dietary survey. Dietary assessment and 24-h urine collection were repeated 3 days later. Daily intake and urinary excretion of Mg were analyzed using Can-Pro and ICP-OES, respectively. The statistical analysis was conducted using SAS program. Mg intake of the subjects was 319 ± 129 mg/day for men and 277 ± 94 mg/day for women and the proportion of subjects who did not meet the estimated average requirement was 50 and 67.5 % for men and women, respectively. Urinary Mg excretion was 30.3 % of the daily Mg intake. Urinary Mg excretion was not significantly correlated with the daily Mg intake. Korean adults are not meeting the recommended intake of Mg, but its urinary excretion suggests homeostasis is not compromised.