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OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the US-Mexico border wall height extension on traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) and related costs. METHODS In this retrospective cohort study, patients who presented to the UC San Diego Health Trauma Center for injuries from falling at the border wall between 2016 and 2021 were considered. Patients in the pre–height extension period (January 2016–May 2018) were compared with those in the post–height extension period (January 2020–December 2021). Demographic characteristics, clinical data, and hospital charges were analyzed. RESULTS A total of 383 patients were identified: 51 (0 TBIs, 68.6% male) in the pre–height extension cohort and 332 (14 TBIs, 77.1% male) in the post–height extension cohort, with mean ages of 33.5 and 31.5 years, respectively. There was an increase in the average number of TBIs per month (0.0 to 0.34) and operative TBIs per month (0.0 to 0.12). TBIs were associated with increased Injury Severity Score (8.8 vs 24.2, p < 0.001), median (IQR) hospital length of stay (5.0 [2–11] vs 8.5 [4–45] days, p = 0.03), and median (IQR) hospital charges ($163,490 [$86,369–$277,918] vs $243,658 [$136,769–$1,127,920], p = 0.04). TBIs were normalized for changing migration rates on the basis of Customs and Border Protection apprehensions. CONCLUSIONS This heightened risk of intracranial injury among vulnerable immigrant populations poses ethical and economic concerns to be addressed regarding border wall infrastructure.

Electric scooters (e-scooters) are an increasingly popular form of transportation, but their use has also resulted in increased incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Previous reports have predominantly described mild TBI with limited attention to other injury patterns. Our objective was to evaluate the impact of e-scooter use on rates of severe TBI.We performed a multicenter retrospective case review of patients who presented with severe TBI (Glasgow Coma Scale score 3-8) related to e-scooter use and undertook a systematic literature review to identify other reports of severe TBI related to e-scooter use.Of the 19 patients (mean age, 38 ± 16 years; 73.7% male) included in the case series, 13 (68.4%) experienced a fall and 6 (31.6%) were involved in a collision. Various cerebral injury patterns, associated craniofacial fractures, and cervical spine injuries were also seen. Twelve patients (63.2%) underwent intracranial pressure monitor placement and 6 (31.6%) underwent a decompressive hemicraniectomy. Most patients (n = 12; 63.2%) were discharged to acute rehabilitation, with a median modified Rankin Scale score of 2 at 4.9 ± 7.7 months follow-up (52.6% had a good outcome of modified Rankin Scale score ≤2), but 4 patients died of primary injuries. The systematic review identified 18 studies with 77,069 patients between 2019 and 2021, with 37 patients who required intensive care and 6 patients who had neurosurgical intervention.Severe TBI after e-scooter use is associated with high morbidity and is likely underdiagnosed in the literature. Awareness and public policies may be helpful to reduce the impact of injury.

Chronic pain is a leading cause of disability in the United States. Limited efficacy associated with pharmacologic management and surgical interventions in refractory patients has led to further exploration of cognitive and behavioral interventions as both an adjunctive and primary therapeutic modality. Mindfulness-based meditation has shown to be effective in reducing pain in randomized studies of chronic pain patients as well as models of experimentally induced pain in healthy participants. These studies have revealed specific neural mechanisms which may explain both short-term and sustained pain relief associated with mindfulness-based interventions.

BACKGROUND Arachnoid cysts are congenital or acquired structures found within the brain and are rarely symptomatic for adults. The literature documenting enlarging arachnoid cysts in adults is also discussed. OBSERVATIONS An elderly woman presented with acutely worsening headaches, photophobia, cognitive function, and a seizure-like episode. The patient had a known arachnoid cyst with a decade of radiographic stability, which was now idiopathically enlarging. The patient had a previous history of traumatic brain injuries but no reported trauma around the time of presentation. Due to the severity of midline shift and symptomatology, the decision was made to treat the patient surgically with fenestration and shunting. She recovered well postoperatively. LESSONS During the workup for a symptomatic elderly patient, enlargement of a previously asymptomatic arachnoid cyst should remain on the differential until specifically ruled out, even in the absence of recent trauma. While rare, enlarging arachnoid cysts result in neurological findings and impact the quality of life for patients.

Purpose: High-volume hospitals are associated with improved surgical outcomes for acoustic neuromas (ANs). Due to the benign and slow-growing nature of ANs, many patients travel to geographically distant cities, states, or countries for their treatment. However, the impact of travel burden to high-volume centers, as well as its relative benefit are poorly understood. We compared post-operative outcomes between AN patients that underwent treatment at local, low-volume hospitals with those that traveled long distances to high-volume hospitals. Methods: The National Cancer Database was used to analyze AN patients that underwent surgery (2004–2015). Patients in the lowest quartile of travel distance and volume (Short-travel/Low-Volume: STLV) were compared to patients in the highest quartile of travel distance and volume (Long-travel/High-Volume: LTHV). Only STLV and LTHV cases were included for analysis. Results: Of 13,370 cases, 2,408 met inclusion criteria. STLV patients (n = 1,305) traveled a median of 6 miles (Interquartile range [IQR] 3-9) to low-volume centers (median 2, IQR 1-3 annual cases) and LTHV patients (n = 1,103) traveled a median of 143 miles [IQR 103-230, maximum 4,797] to high-volume centers (median 34, IQR 28–42 annual cases). LTHV patients had lower Charlson/Deyo scores (p=0.001), mostly received care at academic centers (81.7% vs 39.4%, pConclusion: Although traveling farther to high-volume centers increased the time between diagnosis and treatment for AN patients, they experienced superior postoperative outcomes compared to patients who received treatment locally at low-volume centers. Enabling access and travel to high-volume centers may improve AN patient outcomes.

Embolization of the middle meningeal artery (MMA) is a safe and effective adjunct in the treatment of chronic subdural hematoma. While prior authors describe the use of coils to assist embolization by preventing reflux through eloquent collaterals, we de- scribe the use of coils to further open the MMA, allowing the administration of greater amounts of embolisate for a more robust embolization. The objective of this study was to demonstrate that helical coils can safely open the MMA following the administration of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) particles. This allows for more embolisate to be administered into the MMA for more effective treatment. A retrospective review was conducted at our institution including intraoperative images and postoperative clinical and radiographic follow up. Failure rates using MMA embolization with PVA and helical coil augmentation were compared to failure rates in the literature of MMA embolization with PVA or ethylene vinyl-alcohol copolymer alone. A total of 8 cases were reviewed in which this technique was implemented. There were no immediate complications after treatment. All patients that underwent helical coil embolization following the administration of PVA had increased amount of embolisate delivered into the MMA. All patients at follow up had resolution of the subdural hematoma on outpatient imaging. Helical coil embolization allows for more embolisate administration into the MMA and provides a technical advantage for patients that fail traditional techniques of embolization. Case series are taking place to further test this hypothesis and identify the ideal patient population that may gain maximal yield from this novel technique.

The superior sagittal sinus (SSS) is a midline structure of the superficial cerebral venous system that drains the anterior cerebral hemispheres. Hypoplasia of the rostral SSS is a known variant, although associated complications are rare. A woman in her 30s presented for evaluation of a symptomatic left-sided acoustic neuroma and was found to have an incidental chronic subdural haematoma (SDH) over the left frontoparietal convexity without trauma or precipitating event. The SDH expanded on serial imaging and the patient eventually underwent left-sided frontoparietal craniotomy for haematoma evacuation. Haematological evaluation was benign, but angiography revealed absence of the anterior half of the SSS. We report the first case of spontaneous SDH in the setting of hypoplastic rostral SSS.

Background The recent San Diego–Mexico border wall height extension has resulted in an increased injury risk for unauthorized immigrants falling from greater heights. However, the effects of the border wall extension on frequency and morbidity of spinal injuries and related economic costs have yet to be highlighted. Methods We retrospectively compared two cohorts who presented to the UC San Diego Health Trauma Center for border wall falls: pre-height extension (12 patients; January 2016–May 2018), and post-height extension (102 patients; January 2020–December 2021). Patients presented during border wall construction (June 2018–December 2019) were excluded. Demographics, clinical data and hospital costs were collected. Spinal injuries were normalized using Customs and Border Protection apprehensions. Costs were adjusted for inflation using the 2021 medical care price index. Results The increase in spine injuries per month (0.8–4.25) and operative spine injuries per month (0.3– 1.7) was statistically significant (P Conclusion The data support that the recent San Diego–Mexico border wall extension is correlated with more frequent, severe and costly spinal injuries. This current infrastructure should be re-evaluated as border-related injuries represent a humanitarian and public health crisis.

Background An enlarged suprameatal tubercle (SMT) can obscure visualization of the trigeminal nerve and require removal during microvascular decompression (MVD) surgery, especially when the superior petrosal vein (SPV) complex is preserved. Objective To define the incidence and important variables affecting the need for SMT removal with an SPV-sparing trigeminal nerve MVD. Methods Retrospective single-institution review identified patients who underwent a first-time, SPV-sparing MVD for trigeminal neuralgia (TGN) over a 26-mo period. SMT length (SMT-L), SMT width (SMT-W), and peri-trigeminal cerebellopontine cisternal thickness (CT) were measured from axial high-resolution magnetic resonance images. Need for SMT removal and use of endoscopic assistance was recorded. Data were analyzed using unpaired t-tests, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC)/area under the curve testing. Results A total of 43 MVD surgeries for TGN on 42 patients (mean age 52.7 ± 14.4 yr) were analyzed. Mean SMT-L, SMT-W, and CT were 9.8 ± 1.6, 2.0 ± 0.8, and 4.2 ± 1.5 mm, respectively. SMT removal via drilling was required in 4/43 cases (9.3%). Endoscopic assistance was used in 3 cases (2 SMT removed and 1 SMT preserved). SMT-W was the biggest predictor of the need for SMT removal on ROC analysis (area under the curve 0.97, 0.92-1.0 95% CI). The combined thresholds of SMT-W ≥ 3.2 mm and CT ≤ 3.5 mm demonstrated 100% sensitive and 100% specificity for the need to remove the SMT on optimal cutoff analysis. Conclusion SMT drilling is necessary in nearly 10% of SPV-sparing MVDs for TGN. The combination of SMT width and cerebellopontine cistern thickness is predictive of the need for SMT removal.

INTRODUCTION The primary outcome metric in patients with craniosynostosis are changes in intracranial volumes (ICVs). In patients who undergo distraction osteogenesis (DO) to treat craniosynostosis, changes are also dependent on the length of distraction. Virtual surgical planning (VSP) has been used to predict anticipated changes in ICV during cranial vault reconstruction. The purpose of this study is to analyze the actual versus predicted ICV changes using VSP in patients who undergo DO for craniosynostosis management. METHODS All patients with craniosynostosis treated with DO at a single institution, Rady Children's Hospital, between December 2013 and May 2019 were identified. Inclusion criteria are as follows: VSP planning with predicted postoperative ICV values and preoperative and postdistraction CT scans to quantify ICV. Postoperative ICV and VSP-estimated ICV were adjusted for age-related ICV growth. The primary outcome measure calculated was age-adjusted percent volume change per millimeter distraction (PVCPD), and results were analyzed using paired Wilcoxon signed rank tests. RESULTS Twenty-seven patients underwent DO for cranial vault remodeling. Nineteen patients were nonsyndromic, and 8 patients were syndromic. The median postoperative PVCPD was 0.30%/mm, and the median VSP-estimated PVCPD was 0.36% per millimeter (P < 0.001). A subanalysis of nonsyndromic patients showed a median postoperative PVCPD of 0.29%/mm in nonsyndromic patients that differed significantly from the VSP estimate of 0.34%/mm (P = 0.003). There was also a significant difference in syndromic patients' observed PVCPD of 0.41%/mm versus VSP estimate of 0.79%/mm (P = 0.012). CONCLUSIONS Virtual surgical planning overestimates the change in ICV attributable to DO in both syndromic and nonsyndromic patients.

Objective Moyamoya disease (MMD) is a vasculopathy of the internal carotid arteries with ischemic and hemorrhagic sequelae. Surgical revascularization confers upfront peri-procedural risk and costs in exchange for long-term protective benefit against hemorrhagic disease. The authors present a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) of surgical versus non-surgical management of MMD. Methods A Markov Model was used to simulate a 41-year-old suffering a transient ischemic attack (TIA) secondary to MMD and now faced with operative versus nonoperative treatment options. Health utilities, costs, and outcome probabilities were obtained from the CEA registry and the published literature. The primary outcome was incremental cost-effectiveness ratio which compared the quality adjusted life years (QALYs) and costs of surgical and nonsurgical treatments. Base-case, one-way sensitivity, two-way sensitivity, and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed with a willingness to pay threshold of $50,000. Results The base case model yielded 3.81 QALYs with a cost of $99,500 for surgery, and 3.76 QALYs with a cost of $106,500 for nonsurgical management. One-way sensitivity analysis demonstrated the greatest sensitivity in assumptions to cost of surgery and cost of admission for hemorrhagic stroke, and probabilities of stroke with no surgery, stroke after surgery, poor surgical outcome, and death after surgery. Probabilistic sensitivity analyses demonstrated that surgical revascularization was the cost-effective strategy in over 87.4% of simulations. Conclusions Considering both direct and indirect costs and the postoperative QALY, surgery is considerably more cost-effective than non-surgical management for adults with MMD.

There is a paucity of data on normal intracranial volumes for healthy children during the first few years of life, when cranial growth velocity is greatest. The aim of this study was to generate a normative predictive model of intracranial volumes based on brain magnetic resonance imaging from a large sample of healthy children to serve as a reference tool for future studies on craniosynostosis.Structural magnetic resonance imaging data for healthy children up to 3 years of age was acquired from the National Institutes of Health Pediatric MRI Data Repository. Intracranial volumes were calculated using T1-weighted scans with FreeSurfer (version 6.0.0). Mean intracranial volumes were calculated and best-fit logarithmic curves were generated. Results were compared to previously published intracranial volume curves.Two-hundred seventy magnetic resonance imaging scans were available: 118 were collected in the first year of life, 97 were collected between years 1 and 2, and 55 were collected between years 2 and 3. A best-fit logarithmic growth curve was generated for male and female patients. The authors' regression models showed that male patients had significantly greater intracranial volumes than female patients after 1 month of age. Predicted intracranial volumes were also greater in male and female patients in the first 6 months of life as compared to previously published intracranial volume curves.To the authors' knowledge, this is the largest series of demographically representative magnetic resonance imaging-based intracranial volumes for children aged 3 years and younger. The model generated in this study can be used by investigators as a reference for evaluating craniosynostosis patients.

Compared to adult AVMs, there is a paucity of data on the microsurgical treatment of pediatric AVMs. We report our institutional experience with pediatric AVMs treated by microsurgical resection with or without endovascular embolization and radiation therapy. We retrospectively reviewed all patients ≤ 18 years of age with cerebral AVMs that underwent microsurgical resection at Rady Children’s Hospital 2002–2019. Eighty-nine patients met inclusion criteria. The mean age was 10.3 ± 5.0 years, and 56% of patients were male. In total, 72 (81%) patients presented with rupture. Patients with unruptured AVMs presented with headache (n = 5, 29.4%), seizure (n = 9, 52.9%), or incidental finding (n = 3, 17.7%). The mean presenting mRS was 2.8 ± 1.8. AVM location was lobar in 78%, cerebellar/brainstem in 15%, and deep supratentorial in 8%. Spetzler-Martin grade was I in 28%, II in 45%, III in 20%, IV in 6%, and V in 1%. Preoperative embolization was utilized in 38% of patients and more frequently in unruptured than ruptured AVMs (62% vs. 32%, p = 0.022). Radiographic obliteration was achieved in 76/89 (85.4%) patients. Complications occurred in 7 (8%) patients. Annualized rates of delayed rebleeding and recurrence were 1.2% and 0.9%, respectively. The mean follow-up was 2.8 ± 3.1 years. A good neurological outcome (mRS score ≤ 2) was obtained in 80.9% of patients at last follow-up and was improved relative to presentation for 75% of patients. Our case series demonstrates high rates of radiographic obliteration and relatively low incidence of neurologic complications of treatment or AVM recurrence.

Background Complications of ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts include migration into various anatomic compartments and even extrusion through tissue layers. Case Description A 31-year-old female patient with a VP shunt presented with distal shunt tubing extruding through the skin at the level of the inguinal ligament. Shunt hardware was removed, and cultures grew Dermacoccus. The patient was treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics and underwent placement of a lumboperitoneal shunt. Conclusions Dermacoccus is a gram-positive skin organism with rare human pathogenicity and not previously known to cause shunt infections.

The increasing competitiveness of the neurosurgical residency match has made it progressively difficult for foreign medical graduates (FMGs) to match in neurosurgery. We compared FMG to U.S. medical graduate (USMG) match rates in neurosurgery and identified factors associated with match outcomes for FMGs in neurosurgery.Retrospective review of American Association of Neurological Surgeons membership data and Association of American Medical Colleges Charting the Outcomes match reports (2007-2017).Across 1857 neurosurgical residents (USMG: 91.1%, FMG: 8.9%), average FMG match rates were 24% (range, 15%-35%) versus 83% (range, 75%-94%; P0.001) for USMG. FMGs were more male (89.5% vs. 82.0%, P = 0.016), older (33.9 vs. 31.8 years, P = 0.008), and more likely to take research year(s) before matching (95.8% vs. 78.5%, P0.001). FMGs had greater publications (5 vs. 2, P0.001) and H-indices (3 vs. 1, P0.001). The number of matched USMGs increased by 3.3 annually, whereas that of matched FMGs remained unchanged (β = 0.07). Compared with USMGs, FMGs were less likely to match to National Institutes of Health (NIH) Top 40 (32.7% vs. 47.5%, P0.001) and Doximity Top 20 (20.0% vs. 29.0%, P = 0.014) programs. FMGs with prior U.S. neurosurgery program affiliation were more likely to match at NIH and Doximity Top 20 programs (P0.05). For NIH programs, FMGs were older (35.3 vs. 32.0, P = 0.011), had higher H-indices (5 vs. 2, P0.001), publications (7 vs. 2, P0.001), and were more likely to take research year(s) (94.4% vs. 76.0%, P = 0.002) than USMGs. FMGs had similar patterns for matching into Doximity Top 20 programs.Although FMGs have lower match rates into U.S. neurosurgery residencies than USMGs, several demographic, professional, and academic factors could increase the chances of successful FMG neurosurgical match.

The development of infections such as urinary tract infections (UTIs) or pneumonia after a traumatic subdural hematoma (tSDH) can worsen patient outcomes and increase healthcare costs. We herein identify clinical parameters that influence the risk of infections after tSDH.This single-institution retrospective cohort study examined the incidence and risk factors for UTI and pneumonia among tSDH patients from 1990 to 2015. Multivariate logistic regression assessed the impact of various demographic and clinical variables on these outcomes.3024 patients with tSDHs were identified (73.1% male); Of those, 208 (6.9%) experienced a UTI and 434 (14.4%) experienced pneumonia. Of the 559 patients (18.5%) who underwent a craniotomy and/or craniectomy for evacuation of a tSDH, 62 (11.1%) experienced a UTI and 222 (39.7%) experienced pneumonia. Risk factors for both pneumonia and UTI included length of stay (LOS) ≥7 days (odds ratio [OR] = 6.0, P0.001; OR = 11.2, P0.001), intensive care unit LOS ≥7 days (OR = 8.1, P0.001; OR = 1.7, P = 0.012), and mechanical ventilation ≥14 days (OR = 3.4, P0.001; OR = 1.8, P = 0.007). Craniotomy/craniectomy increased the risk of pneumonia (OR = 1.4, P = 0.019) but not UTI. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≥13 was associated with a decreased pneumonia risk (OR = 0.5, P = 0.003), and male gender (OR = 0.5, P0.001) and age60 (OR = 0.6, P0.001) were associated with a decreased UTI risk.Patients with prolonged hospitalizations and/or intensive care unit stays were more likely to experience UTIs and pneumonia. Male gender and younger age were protective against UTI, and higher GCS was protective against pneumonia. These data may aid the identification and treatment of at-risk populations after admission for a tSDH.

BACKGROUND The impact of metopic craniosynostosis on intracranial volume (ICV) and ICV growth is unclear. In addition, the relationship between head circumference (HC) and ICV in these patients is not previously described. METHODS A retrospective review of 72 patients with metopic craniosynostosis was performed. The ICVs were calculated from manually segmented preoperative computed tomography scans. Magnetic resonance imaging data for 270 healthy children were available. The ICVs were calculated in FreeSurfer.First, a growth curve for metopic patients was generated and a logarithmic best-fit curve was calculated. Second, the impact of metopic craniosynostosis on ICV relative to healthy controls was assessed using multivariate linear regression. Third, the growth curves for metopic patients and healthy children were compared.Pearson's correlation was used to measure the association between HC and ICV. RESULTS Mean metopic ICV was significantly lower than normal ICV within the first 3 to 6 months (674.9 versus 813.2 cm; P = 0.002), 6 to 9 months (646.6 versus 903.9 cm; P = 0.005), and 9 to 12 months of life (848.0 versus 956.6 cm; P = 0.038). There was no difference in ICV after 12 months of age (P = 0.916).The ICV growth in patients with metopic craniosynostosis is defined by a significantly different growth curve than in normal children (P = 0.005).The ICV and HC were highly correlated across a broad range of ICVs and patient age (r = 0.98, P

Cerebral bypass is often needed for complex aneurysms requiring vessel sacrifice, yet intraoperative predictors of ischemic risk in bypass-dependent territories are limited. Indocyanine Green (ICG)-based flow analyses (ICG-BFAs; Flow 800, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) semi-quantitatively assess cortical perfusion, and in this work we determine the efficacy of ICG-BFA for assessing post-operative ischemic risk during cerebral bypass surgery for complex aneurysms. Retrospective clinical and pre/post-bypass intra-operative ICG-BFA data (delay and blood flow index [BFI]) on ten patients undergoing cerebral bypass for complex cerebral aneurysms requiring vessel sacrifice were collected from a single-institution prospective database and analyzed via non-parametric testing and logistic regression. Mean age was 55.9 ± 14.8 years. Pre/post-bypass delay (median 35.6 [5.1-51.3] vs. 26.0 [17.1-59.9]; p = 0.2) and BFI (median 56.1 [8.1-120.4] vs. 32.2 [3.0-147.4]; p = 0.2) did not significantly differ. Two patients (20%) developed post-operative ischemia in bypass dependent territories. Delay ratio did not differ between patients with and without post-operative ischemia (median 1.15 [0.67-1.64] vs. 0.83 [0.36-3.56]; p = 0.6), nor predict stroke risk (odds ratio = 1.1, p = 0.9). Conversely, BFI ratio was significantly lower for patients experiencing post-operative ischemia than those without ischemia (median 0.11 [0.06-0.17] vs. 0.99 [0.28-1.42]; p = 0.03). A BFI ratio0.21 predicted the occurrence of post-operative ischemia (odds ratio = 0.02, p = 0.05). These data suggest that intraoperative ICG-BFA may help assess post-operative ischemic risk during cerebral bypass surgery for complex aneurysms requiring vessel sacrifice.

PURPOSE For many types of surgical cases, there is an increase in length with the participation of a resident physician. The lost operative time productivity is not necessarily mitigated in any fashion other than to benefit the experience of the trainee. Moreover, increasing pressures to maximize productivity, coupled with diminishing reimbursements serve to disincentive resident involvement. The aim of this study was to examine the opportunity cost in the academic setting for intraoperative resident participation during specific hand surgery cases. METHODS Retrospective analysis was performed on the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Project (NSQIP) database from 2006 to 2015. Cases were identified by Current Procedural Terminology code to isolate distal radius fracture repairs, carpal tunnel releases, scaphoid fractures repairs, and metacarpal fracture repairs. Variables collected included operation time, presence or absence of resident physician, and postgraduate year level. Statistical analysis was performed using the statistical computing software R 3.4.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Cost analysis was performed to quantify the effect of operative times in terms of relative value units (RVUs) lost. RESULTS A total of 3727 cases were identified. Of those, 1264 cases were performed with a resident present. Residents participated in cases with higher total RVU (14.91 vs 13.16, P < 0.001). There was a statistically significant increase of 24.3 minutes (P < 0.001) in the mean operation time with a resident present as compared with those without. Moreover, RVU per hour in resident cases was significantly lower by 2.97 RVU per hour or 21% (P < 0.001). Using the late 2018 Medicare physician conversion factor of US $33.9996, the opportunity cost to attending physicians is US $159.20 per case. CONCLUSIONS Resident participation in surgical cases is paramount to the education of future trainees, particularly in the era of trainee duty hour reform. Because residents are participating in higher total RVU cases, this selection bias may be playing a role in explaining our result. Nonetheless, resident involvement for certain procedures comes at an opportunity cost to faculty surgeons. How to balance the cost to train residents in the emerging value-based health systems will prove to be challenging but requires consideration.

Single position lateral fusion reduces the need for a secondary surgery and robotic guidance allows for potentially higher accuracy of screw placement. We expand the role of robotics with a simultaneous workflow where 2 surgeons can work in single position surgery and discuss the technical feasibility of placement of S2-alar-iliac (S2AI) screws in the lateral position. A 70-year-old male presented with chronic back pain and bilateral leg pain with the left side worse than the right. He subsequently underwent an L3-S1 oblique lumbar interbody fusion (OLIF) with a minimally invasive L3-ilium robotic posterior spinal fixation simultaneously in single lateral position with S2AI screws. The software planning requisite of robotics allowed for a preoperative plan where lumbar cortical screws were used to line up with bilateral S2AI screws. Intraoperatively, the OLIF was performed anterior to the patient which allowed for a second surgeon to perform the posterior stage of screw placement simultaneously in overlapping fashion during OLIF exposure. Once all screws were placed, the OLIF discectomy and cage placement were completed. As the OLIF incision is closed, rodding proceeds posteriorly with subsequent closure simultaneously as well. Operative time from skin incision to skin closure was 3 hours and 47 minutes. We present here a novel technical report on the recommended workflow of simultaneous robotic single position surgery OLIF and demonstrate the feasibility of placement of sacroiliac fixation in the lateral decubitus position. We believe this technique to be minimally invasive, effective, with the benefit of shortening valuable operating room case time.

OBJECTIVE Children with nonoperative brain tumors, such as diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs), often have life-threatening hydrocephalus. Palliative shunting is common in such cases but can be complicated by hardware infection and mechanical failure. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) is a minimally invasive alternative to treat hydrocephalus without implanted hardware. Herein, the authors report their institutional experience with palliative ETV for primary pediatric brain tumors. METHODS The authors conducted a retrospective review of consecutive patients who had undergone palliative ETV for hydrocephalus secondary to nonresectable primary brain tumors over a 10-year period at Rady Children’s Hospital. Collected variables included age, sex, tumor type, tumor location, presence of leptomeningeal spread, use of a robot for ETV, complications, ETV Success Score (ETVSS), functional status, length of survival, and follow-up time. A successful outcome was defined as an ETV performed without clinically significant perioperative complications or secondary requirement for a new shunt. RESULTS Fifteen patients met the study inclusion criteria (11 males, 4 females; average age 7.9 years, range 0.8–21 years). Thirteen patients underwent manual ETV, and 2 patients underwent robotic ETV. Preoperative symptoms included gaze palsy, nausea/vomiting, headache, lethargy, hemiparesis, and seizures. Tumor types included DIPG (3), intraventricular/thalamic glioblastoma (2), and leptomeningeal spread of medulloblastoma (2), anaplastic oligo-/astrocytoma (2), rhabdoid tumor (2), primitive neuroectodermal tumor (1), ganglioglioma (1), pineoblastoma (1), and embryonal carcinoma (1). The mean preoperative ETVSS was 79 ± 8.8. There was 1 perioperative complication, a wound breakdown consistent with refractory hydrocephalus. The mean follow-up was 4.9 ± 5.5 months overall, and mean survival for the patients who died was 3.2 ± 3.6 months. Two patients remained alive at a mean follow-up of 15.7 months. Palliative ETV was successful in 7 patients (47%) and unsuccessful in 8 (53%). While patients with successful ETV were significantly older (11.9 ± 5.6 vs 4.4 ± 4.1 years, p = 0.010), there were no significant differences in preoperative ETVSS (p = 0.796) or postoperative survival (p = 0.476) between the successful and unsuccessful groups. Overall, functional outcomes were similar between the two groups; there was no significant difference in posttreatment Karnofsky Performance Status scores (68.6 ± 19.5 vs 61.3 ± 16.3, p = 0.454), suggesting that including ETV in the treatment algorithm did not worsen outcomes. CONCLUSIONS Palliative ETV is a safe and potentially efficacious treatment option in selected pediatric patients with hydrocephalus from nonoperative brain tumors. Close follow-up, especially in younger children, is required to ensure that patients with refractory symptoms receive appropriate secondary CSF diversion.

BACKGROUND: The institution-wide response of the University of California San Diego Health system to the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic was founded on rapid development of in-house testing capacity, optimization of personal protective equipment usage, expansion of intensive care unit capacity, development of analytic dashboards for monitoring of institutional status, and implementation of an operating room (OR) triage plan that postponed nonessential/elective procedures. We analyzed the impact of this triage plan on the only academic neurosurgery center in San Diego County, California, USA. METHODS: We conducted a de-identified retrospective review of all operative cases and procedures performed by the Department of Neurosurgery from November 24, 2019, through July 6, 2020, a 226-day period. Statistical analysis involved 2-sample z tests assessing daily case totals over the 113-day periods before and after implementation of the OR triage plan on March 16, 2020. RESULTS: The neurosurgical service performed 1429 surgical and interventional radiologic procedures over the study period. There was no statistically significant difference in mean number of daily total cases in the pre-versus post-OR triage plan periods (6.9 vs. 5.8 mean daily cases; 1-tail P = 0.050, 2-tail P = 0.101), a trend reflected by nearly every category of neurosurgical cases. CONCLUSIONS: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the University of California San Diego Department of Neurosurgery maintained an operative volume that was only modestly diminished and continued to meet the essential neurosurgical needs of a large population. Lessons from our experience can guide other departments as they triage neurosurgical cases to meet community needs.

BACKGROUND Removal of the anterior clinoid process (ACP) can expand anterior skull base surgical corridors. ACP development and anatomical variations are poorly defined in children. OBJECTIVE To perform a morphometric analysis of the ACP during pediatric maturation. METHODS Measurements of ACP base thickness (ACP-BT), midpoint thickness (ACP-MT), length (ACP-L), length from optic strut to ACP tip (ACP-OS), pneumatization (ACP-pneumo), and the presence of an ossified carotico-clinoid ligament (OCCL) or interclinoid ligament (OIL) were made from high-resolution computed-tomography scans from 60 patients (ages 0-3, 4-7, 8-11 12-15, 16-18, and >18 yr). Data were analyzed by laterality, sex, and age groups using t-tests and linear regression. RESULTS There were no significant differences in ACP parameters by laterality or sex, and no significant growth in ACP-BT or ACP-MT during development. From ages 0-3 yr to adult, mean ACP-L increased 49%, from 7.7 to 11.5 mm. The majority of ACP-L growth occurred in 2 phases between ages 0-3 to 8-11 and ages 16-18 to adult. Conversely, ACP-OS was stable from ages 0-3 to 8-11 but increased by 63% between ages 8-11 to adult. Variations in ACP morphology (OCCL/OIL/ACP-pneumo) were found in 15% (9/60) of scans. OCCL and OIL occurred in patients as young as 3 yrs, whereas ACP-pneumo was not seen in patients younger than 11 yrs. CONCLUSION The ACP demonstrates stable thickness and a complex triphasic elongation and remodeling pattern with development, the understanding of which may facilitate removal in patients

Compared to adult AVMs, there is a paucity of data on the microsurgical treatment of pediatric AVMs. We report our institutional experience with pediatric AVMs treated by microsurgical resection with or without endovascular embolization and radiation therapy.We retrospectively reviewed all patients ≤ 18 years of age with cerebral AVMs that underwent microsurgical resection at Rady Children's Hospital 2002-2019.Eighty-nine patients met inclusion criteria. The mean age was 10.3 ± 5.0 years, and 56% of patients were male. In total, 72 (81%) patients presented with rupture. Patients with unruptured AVMs presented with headache (n = 5, 29.4%), seizure (n = 9, 52.9%), or incidental finding (n = 3, 17.7%). The mean presenting mRS was 2.8 ± 1.8. AVM location was lobar in 78%, cerebellar/brainstem in 15%, and deep supratentorial in 8%. Spetzler-Martin grade was I in 28%, II in 45%, III in 20%, IV in 6%, and V in 1%. Preoperative embolization was utilized in 38% of patients and more frequently in unruptured than ruptured AVMs (62% vs. 32%, p = 0.022). Radiographic obliteration was achieved in 76/89 (85.4%) patients. Complications occurred in 7 (8%) patients. Annualized rates of delayed rebleeding and recurrence were 1.2% and 0.9%, respectively. The mean follow-up was 2.8 ± 3.1 years. A good neurological outcome (mRS score ≤ 2) was obtained in 80.9% of patients at last follow-up and was improved relative to presentation for 75% of patients.Our case series demonstrates high rates of radiographic obliteration and relatively low incidence of neurologic complications of treatment or AVM recurrence.

OBJECTIVE The middle fossa transpetrosal approach to the petroclival and posterior cavernous sinus regions includes removal of the anterior petrous apex (APA), an area well studied in adults but not in children. To this end, the authors performed a morphometric analysis of the APA region during pediatric maturation. METHODS Measurements of the distance from the clivus to the internal auditory canal (IAC; C-IAC), the distance of the petrous segment of the internal carotid artery (petrous carotid; PC) to the mesial petrous bone (MPB; PC-MPB), the distance of the PC to the mesial petrous apex (MPA; PC-MPA), and the IAC depth from the middle fossa floor (IAC-D) were made on thin-cut CT scans from 60 patients (distributed across ages 0–3, 4–7, 8–11, 12–15, 16–18, and > 18 years). The APA volume was calculated as a cylinder using C-IAC (length) and PC-MPB (diameter). APA pneumatization was noted. Data were analyzed by laterality, sex, and age. RESULTS APA parameters did not differ by laterality or sex. APA pneumatization was seen on 20 of 60 scans (33.3%) in patients ≥ 4 years. The majority of the APA region growth occurred by ages 8–11 years, with PC-MPA and PC-MPB increasing 15.9% (from 9.4 to 10.9 mm, p = 0.08) and 23.5% (from 8.9 to 11.0 mm, p < 0.01) between ages 0–3 and 8–11 years, and C-IAC increasing 20.7% (from 13.0 to 15.7 mm, p < 0.01) between ages 0–3 and 4–7 years. APA volume increased 79.6% from ages 0–3 to 8–11 years (from 834.3 to 1499.2 mm3, p < 0.01). None of these parameters displayed further significant growth. Finally, IAC-D increased 51.1% (from 4.3 to 6.5 mm, p < 0.01) between ages 0–3 and adult, without significant differences between successive age groups. CONCLUSIONS APA development is largely complete by the ages of 8–11 years. Knowledge of APA growth patterns may aid approach selection and APA removal in pediatric patients.

Background Comparative outcomes of extracranial-to-intracranial (EC-IC) and intracranial-to-intracranial (IC-IC) bypass for complex aneurysm treatment based on rupture status are not well described in the literature. In this study, we compare outcomes of EC-IC and IC-IC bypass for complex intracranial aneurysm treatment based on rupture status. Methods A prospective neurosurgical patient database was retrospectively reviewed. Sixty-three consecutive patients with aneurysm managed with revascularization were identified between July 2014 and December 2018. Results During the study period, 41 patients with aneurysm underwent EC-IC bypass (65%; 24 [58.5%] ruptured, 17 [41.5%] unruptured) and 22 patients with aneurysm underwent IC-IC bypass (34.9%; 13 [59.1%] ruptured, 9 [40.9%] unruptured). Graft spasm occurred in 4 patients (9.8%) in the EC-IC group (all ruptured aneurysms) and all anastomoses were patent on immediate postoperative imaging. Perioperative mortality occurred in 5 patients who underwent EC-IC bypass (12.2%; 3 ruptured, 2 unruptured) EC-IC and 2 patients who underwent IC-IC bypass (9.1%; both ruptured); (P = 0.709). Bypass-related complications occurred only in patients with ruptured aneurysm (2 [8.3%] in the EC-IC group and 0 [0%] in the IC-IC group; P = 0.285). For unruptured aneurysms, the overall complication rate was lower in IC-IC compared with the EC-IC group (P = 0.006). Modified Rankin Scale scores on discharge were significantly lower in IC-IC compared with EC-IC bypass for unruptured aneurysms (P = 0.008). There was a trend for shorter temporary occlusion and hospitalization times and overall better outcomes with IC-IC compared with EC-IC bypass. Conclusions Although often considered riskier than EC-IC bypass, IC-IC in situ bypass showd a favorable technical and safety profile for the treatment of complex, unruptured aneurysms.

BACKGROUND Pay-for-performance reimbursement ties hospital payments to standardized quality-of-care metrics. To the authors' knowledge, the impact of pay-for-performance reimbursement models on hospitals caring primarily for uninsured or underinsured patients remains poorly defined. The objective of the current study was to evaluate how standardized quality-of-care metrics vary by a hospital's propensity to care for uninsured or underinsured patients and demonstrate the potential impact that pay-for-performance reimbursement could have on hospitals caring for the underserved. METHODS The authors identified 1,703,865 patients with cancer who were diagnosed between 2004 and 2015 and treated at 1344 hospitals. Hospital safety-net burden was defined as the percentage of uninsured or Medicaid patients cared for by that hospital, categorizing hospitals into low-burden, medium-burden, and high-burden hospitals. The authors evaluated the impact of safety-net burden on concordance with 20 standardized quality-of-care measures, adjusting for differences in patient age, sex, stage of disease at diagnosis, and comorbidity. RESULTS Patients who were treated at high-burden hospitals were more likely to be young, male, Black and/or Hispanic, and to reside in a low-income and low-educated region. High-burden hospitals had lower adherence to 13 of 20 quality measures compared with low-burden hospitals (all P

Traditional and extended transnasal transsphenoidal approaches provide direct access to a variety of anterior skull base pathologies. Despite increased utilization of transnasal approaches in children, anatomic studies on pediatric skull base maturation are limited. We herein perform a surgically relevant morphometric analysis of the sella and parasellar regions during pediatric maturation.Measurements of sellar length (SL), sellar depth (SDp), sellar diameter (SDm), interclinoid distance (ID), intercavernous distance (ICD), and the presence of sphenoid sinus pneumatization (SSP), and sphenoid sinus type (SST) were made on thin-cut CT scans from 60 patients (evenly grouped by ages 0-3, 4-7, 8-11 12-15, 16-18, and18 years) for analysis. Data were analyzed by sex and age groups using t-tests and linear regression.Sella and parasellar parameters did not differ by sex. SL steadily increased from 8.5 ± 1.2 mm to 11.5 ± 1.6 mm throughout development. SDp and SDm increased from 6.0 ± 0.9 mm to 9.3 ± 1.4 mm and 9.0 ± 1.6 mm to 14.4 ± 1.8 mm during maturation, with significant interval growth from ages 16-18 to adult (p 0.01). ID displayed significant growth from ages 0-3 to 4-7 (18.0 ± 2.4 mm to 20.7 ± 1.9 mm; p = 0.002) and ICD from ages 0-3 to 8-11 (12.0 ± 1.8 mm to 13.5 ± 2.1 mm; p 0.001), without further significant interval growth. SSP was not seen in patients 3, but was 100% by ages 8-11. SSTs progressed from conchal/presellar (60% at ages 4-7) to sellar/postsellar (80% at adulthood).The sella and parasellar regions have varied growth patterns with development. Knowledge of the expected maturation of key anterior skull base structures may augment surgical planning in younger patients.

Background The limitations of the soft-tissue envelope, devascularized bone grafts, and relapse of the deformity are important considerations in the surgical treatment of unicoronal craniosynostosis. The authors report their technique evolution of distraction osteogenesis for treatment of patients with unicoronal craniosynostosis. Methods Open anterior cranial vault reconstruction combined with internal distraction was used, with the aid of virtual surgical planning. Technique evolution included maximizing bone flap perfusion by means of limited rotational flap osteotomies, and preservation of dural attachments. Clinical and procedural characteristics including distraction protocol, intracranial volume change, efficiency of distraction, transfusion, operative time, length of hospitalization, complications, and postoperative outcomes were analyzed. Results Sixteen patients with nonsyndromic unicoronal craniosynostosis underwent repair between August of 2013 and December of 2016. Mean age was 9.0 months. Distractors were advanced a mean of 27.1 mm and achieved a cranial volume change of 29.5 percent, with a mean efficiency of 1.3 percent increase per millimeter of distraction. Mean operating time was 169.3 minutes. Complications were predominately related to infections at the distractor site. At most recent follow-up, all patients had a Whitaker grade I result. Conclusions Distraction osteogenesis can be a safe and effective method of achieving satisfactory aesthetic outcomes and volume expansion for patients with unicoronal craniosynostosis. The technique presented is proposed to maximize bone flap viability and limit relapse of deformity. Further long-term follow-up is needed for definitive comparison with traditional anterior cranial vault reconstruction. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic, IV.

High-volume hospitals are associated with improved outcomes in glioblastoma (GBM). However, the impact of travel burden to high-volume centers is poorly understood. We examined post-operative outcomes between GBM patients that underwent treatment at local, low-volume hospitals with those that traveled long distances to high-volume hospitals. The National Cancer Database was queried for GBM patients that underwent surgery (2010–2014). We established two cohorts: patients in the lowest quartile of travel distance and volume (Short-travel/Low-Volume: STLV) and patients in the highest quartile of travel and volume (Long-travel/High-Volume: LTHV). Outcomes analyzed were 30-day, 90-day mortality, overall survival, 30-day readmission, and hospital length of stay. Of 35,529 cases, STLV patients (n = 3414) traveled a median of 3 miles (Interquartile range [IQR] 1.8–4.2) to low-volume centers (5 [3–7] annual cases) and LTHV patients (n = 3808) traveled a median of 62 miles [44.1–111.3] to high-volume centers (48 [42–71]). LTHV patients were younger, had lower Charlson scores, largely received care at academic centers (84.4% vs 11.9%), were less likely to be minorities (8.1% vs 17.1%) or underinsured (6.9% vs 12.1), and were more likely to receive trimodality therapy (75.6% vs 69.2%; all p

Hospital readmission is a key surgical quality metric associated with financial penalties and greater healthcare costs. We examined the clinical risk factors and postoperative complications associated with 30-day unplanned hospital readmissions after cranial neurosurgery.We queried the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database from 2011 to 2016 for adult patients who had undergone a cranial neurosurgical procedure. Multivariable logistic regression with backward model selection was used to determine the predictors associated with 30-day unplanned hospital readmission.Of 40,802 cranial neurosurgical cases, 4147 (10.2%) required an unplanned readmission. Postoperative complications were greater in the readmission cohort (18.5% vs. 9.9%; P0.001). On adjusted analysis, the clinical factors predictive of unplanned readmission included hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, coagulopathy, chronic steroid use, and preoperative anemia, hyponatremia, and hypoalbuminemia (P ≤ 0.01 for all). Higher American Society of Anesthesiology class (III to V), operative time216 minutes, and unplanned reoperation were also associated with an increased likelihood of readmission (P ≤ 0.001 for all). The postoperative complications predictive of unplanned readmissions were wound infection (odds ratio [OR], 4.90; P0.001), pulmonary embolus (OR, 3.94; P0.001), myocardial infarction or cardiac arrest (OR, 2.37; P0.001), sepsis (OR, 1.73; P0.001), deep venous thrombosis (OR, 1.50; P = 0.002), and urinary tract infection (OR, 1.45; P = 0.002). Female sex, transfer status, and postoperative pulmonary complications were protective of readmission (P0.05 for all).Unplanned hospital readmission after cranial neurosurgery is a common event. The identification of high-risk patients who undergo cranial procedures might allow hospitals to reduce unplanned readmissions and their associated healthcare costs.

Background Crossing a nascently deployed carotid artery stent (CAS) is required to perform angioplasty and filter recapture. If the traversing balloon or filter recapture catheters are eccentric or tangentially angled to the vertical axis of the CAS, they can ensnare on the ledge of the proximal CAS step-off, potentially causing life-threatening complications secondary to deformation, displacement, or mechanical occlusion of the stent. We report a novel “balloon bridge” technique that facilitates safe entry and passage across the CAS with both a balloon catheter and a large-bore guide catheter (LBGC). Methods We used the balloon bridge technique for 2 patients with >90% carotid artery stenosis and steep carotid artery angles of origin who underwent routine CAS, balloon angioplasty, and distal embolic protection. During filter recapture, the balloon was inflated across the junction of the distal LBGC tip and proximal CAS, centering the LBGC within the vessel lumen and CAS. During balloon deflation, the LBGC was sequentially advanced, successfully navigating the LBGC across the proximal stent construct without resistance or complication. Results The balloon bridge technique was completed without complications. We believe that the mechanism of action is secondary to balloon-facilitated LBGC alignment with the true axis of the stent. Conclusions Traversing a CAS with an LBGC or balloon catheter can be tedious and fraught with the potential of neurologic peril should mechanical deformation and occlusion occur. The balloon bridge technique is safe and highly effective for navigating a catheter that is eccentric or tangentially angled to the long axis of a CAS.

INTRODUCTION Methods of reporting quantitative results for distraction osteogenesis (DO) of craniosynostosis have been inconsistent. Therefore, the efficacy of differing techniques and timing in regard to volume change is not well established, with no uniform metric for comparisons. Given that cranial vault remodeling with DO may be completed with different approaches, analysis was made to determine (1) the relative efficiency of different approaches in expanding intracranial volume (ICV) and (2) the impact of adjusting for ICV growth on measured DO efficiency. METHODS Patients with craniosynostosis were treated with open cranial vault reconstruction combined with internal distraction. Preoperative and postoperative computed tomography scans were used to quantify ICV change. The metric was determined by dividing percent ICV change by total distraction length. The metric was used as a proxy for efficiency to compare posterior and anterior distraction between groups using the Mann-Whitney U test and within a subgroup of patients who underwent 2-stage distraction using the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test. RESULTS Twenty patients underwent cranial vault remodeling with DO: 14 unicoronal, 3 bicoronal, 2 multisutural, and 1 lambdoid. Results are reported in medians. Distraction efficiency was 0.99%/mm for primary anterior, unilateral distraction for unicoronal patients (n = 13, aged 9.1 months) and 4.28%/mm for posterior distraction using multiple distractors (n = 4, aged 6.3 months). In terms of the metric, primary posterior distraction was significantly more efficient than primary anterior distraction (P = 0.007). Three patients who had undergone primary posterior distraction later underwent secondary anterior distraction. Again, posterior distraction was shown to be significantly more efficient (5.16 vs 0.62, P = 0.050). For the unicoronal patients who received anterior unilateral distraction, an adjusted metric was calculated to account for normal intracranial growth. This was found to be 0.39%/mm, which was significantly different from the unadjusted metric (P = 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Posterior distraction is more efficient for ICV expansion than anterior distraction, which may have implications for the choice of approach for craniosynostosis repair. In addition, this is the first report of a novel standardized metric for analyzing ICV change achieved by DO. This tool allows for adjusting the efficiency metric for expected ICV growth, which significantly impacts its value.

INTRODUCTION Timing of intervention and complication profiles in surgical repair of craniosynostosis have been widely debated. Early intervention is frequently promoted as a means of decreasing morbidity while maintaining favorable outcomes via minimally invasive techniques such as endoscopic strip craniectomy. Immediate postoperative morbidity due to complications of early vs late intervention remains a key element in comparing timing and technique for craniosynostosis repair. In addition, concurrent fronto-orbital advancement with open cranial vault remodeling may increase the risk of postoperative complications. We present an evaluation of surgical timing and the presence of fronto-orbital advancement as independent predictors of in-hospital complications after craniosynostosis repair. METHODS Retrospective analysis was performed in the National Inpatient Sample database from 1998 to 2009. Patients younger than 3 years having undergone elective surgical repair for craniosynostosis were identified. Comorbidities, demographics, transfusion status, and syndromic diagnosis were included as covariates. A multivariate regression model was used to characterize the association between age at the time of surgery and in-hospital complications. A subgroup analysis using the variable of concurrent fronto-orbital advancement was restricted to patients 8 to 24 months of age to exclude endoscopic craniosynostosis repair, which is traditionally repaired less than 6 months of age. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the impact of concurrent fronto-orbital advancement on postoperative complications. RESULTS A total of 6010 craniosynostosis surgery cases (42.9%, age 0-7 months; 29.5%, age 8-12 months; and 27.6%, age 13-36 months) were included. Patients in the 7-to 12-month age group were more likely to experience complications when compared with the 0- to 6-month age group (odds ratio [OR],1.32; P < 0.05) and 13-to 36-month age group (OR, 1.32; P = 0.056). Syndromic patients (OR, 1.92; P < 0.001) and patients receiving an intraoperative blood transfusion (OR, 1.60; P < 0.05) demonstrated an increased risk for complications. In the subanalysis of 2936 patients aged 8 to 24 months, 15.1% of patients received frontoorbital advancement, which was associated with a significantly increased risk of complications (OR, 1.43; P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Intermediate age (7-12 months) and concurrent fronto-orbital repair were independent risk factors for immediate postoperative complications. These findings may better inform the decision-making process for craniosynostosis repair in terms of timing and need for concurrent fronto-orbital reconstruction.