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To reduce water erosion, one of the most severe land degradation processes on arable soils, conservation measures such as contour farming or reduced tillage practices can be applied. The general effectiveness of these measures on reducing soil erosion is well understood, however, little is known about the influence on tramline tracks, which have considerable impact on the transport of sediment and runoff. This study assesses the impact of reduced and conventional tillage and slope-related tramline directions on runoff and soil erosion rates at catchment level. For this purpose, a published and freely available dataset was used consisting of soil loss and runoff data modelled for a single soil erosion event considering courses and structural properties of tramlines (cf. Saggau et al., 2022). The orientation of tramlines against the slope direction was defined as contouring efficiency (Cef) and calculated by an approach that relates slope and tramline directions. Finally, results of the statistical analyses are compared with mapped soil erosion data. Results show that i) high-resolution derivation of Cef, based on tramlines, shows reasonable results in capturing variations in slope curvatures within the fields, ii) increased Cefs can significantly reduce runoff and soil erosion in tramlines and, iii) reduced tillage indicates significantly lower runoff and soil erosion rates in tramlines and cultivated areas. The results reveal that tramlines have strong interrelations with surface runoff, water connectivity and soil erosion. The consideration of tramlines in process-based models should be employed in other model approaches as it improves assessments of soil erosion risk and efficiencies of conservation measures, which are necessary in taking appropriate actions in support of soil and water conservation.

Soil compaction due to intensive field traffic is one of the main threats to agricultural soils. Besides lower biomass productivity, compacted soils have a reduced regulation function which affects the air, water and nutrient cycles. To evaluate and mitigate soil degradation by field traffic, it is important to know where, when and to what extent soil compaction may occur during certain work processes.For this purpose, we modelled and analysed the soil compaction risk for each work process during a 4-year crop rotation (winter wheat, maize, winter wheat, sugar beets) for one field in Lower Saxony, Germany. Based on RTK-GPS tracks recorded by the farm machineries, FiTraM (field traffic model) was used to model the spatial representation and the wheel load for each tire of each work process. Subsequently, these data were used for the soil compaction risk assessment by the SaSCiA-model (Spatially explicit Soil Compaction risk Assessment). In total, 63 work processes were modelled with a spatial resolution of 20 cm.The model results revealed that the soil compaction risk at field scale is highly variable in space and time. The spatial variations in soil compaction risk are mainly determined by the spatial distribution of soil properties like soil texture, carbon content and soil moisture. In combination with changing wheel loads, e.g. during harvest processes, the soil compaction risk ranges from low to extremely high during one work process. The temporal variation is mainly caused by the weather conditions. A prolonged period with low precipitation resulted in no subsoil compaction risk during maize harvest, although maize harvest is often a major cause of soil compaction.This study shows that the soil compaction risk varies in a wide range within a certain field. Efforts to mitigate soil compaction should consider spatio-temporal dynamics at high resolution to achieve a sustainable soil management.

Investigations of soil compaction in agricultural land often deal with the deployment of heavy, high-performance machinery and their impact on soil structure and functions. The traffic intensity on the field considers the spatial distribution of the number of wheel passes and the wheel load of the machinery. The intensity can vary due to changing machine and field characteristics. However, these dependencies are not analyzed in detail yet.To what extent the machine’s working size and field geometry influence the traffic intensities during wheat harvesting shall be presented in this contribution. A route planning system planned the routes of three different combine harvesters on 59 fields with varying field geometries. With these routes the spatial traffic intensities of the work process were modeled for all variants.To represent the structure of the field geometry, eight shape-indices were calculated. The traffic intensities were divided into classes indicating the percentage area for different threshold values of wheel load and wheel passes.The analysis of the three harvesters showed that the size of the machine has a significant influence on the total trafficked field area and the wheel load distribution. The larger the machine and working width, the more area is affected by high wheel loads, but less total area of the field is passed. Those relations are independent from the field zone (headland, infield or complete field area).The analysis of the field geometry shows that there is a strong correlation between the passed area with more than 5 and 10 wheel passes in the headland and three shape indices. These shape indices are the interior edge ratio (IER), the interior area ratio (IAR), and the mean fractal dimension (MFD). Both the IER and IAR are dependent on the size of the field. It shows that the larger the field area relative to the perimeter and headland area, the bigger the proportion of area in the headland that has been passed more than 5 and 10 times. Analogously, the more complex the field structure, the greater the proportion of area with more than 5 and 10 passes. This increased traffic intensity is probably because a larger field requires more yield transportations from the infield across the headland.The study shows that in wheat harvesting, the geometry of the field and the choice of the machine should be considered if high traffic intensities should be avoided to preserve the soil structure.

Soil erosion by water is one of the main causes of degradation of arable soils worldwide. Through the degradation of soil functionality and the long-distance effect of polluted soil particles, water erosion can severely limit soil fertility and the condition of aquatic ecosystems. Nowadays, a variety of different soil erosion models are used on different spatial and temporal scales to assess soil erosion risk, identify risk areas and support decision makers in adapting soil protection measures. Field studies show that highly compacted field areas such as wheel tracks, can have a major influence on the extent of soil erosion and runoff, but so far, they are not considered in any model-based soil erosion assessment.The aim of this study is therefore to present an approach for integrating compaction effects of tramlines into process-based soil erosion models. Furthermore, the effects of tramlines on soil erosion and runoff processes within a watershed are to be identified. For this purpose, the soil erosion model EROSION 3D (E3D) was parameterized by accounting for soil conditions of compacted wheel tracks for a watershed in Norther Germany. In a further step, the modelling was conducted for a real heavy rainfall event and calibrated and tested with mapped runoff and soil erosion data. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis of the input parameters was conducted in order to assess soil properties which have a major impact on the model results.The study shows that small-scale features such as tramlines can be integrated into soil erosion models and that this can significantly improves the spatial prediction of runoff and soil erosion. The model results also show that tramline tracks can have a significant contribution (up to 75 %) to total erosion as well as to sediment input into the water network, while bulk density of the wheel tracks is a major factor influencing modelled runoff and soil loss. The model results indicate that tramlines can play a key role in runoff and erosion processes and that the consideration of highly compacted areas in soil erosion assessments in agricultural landscapes is crucial. The results also indicate, that soil conservation measures may need to foster on tramlines and other compacted field areas such as headlands.

Worldwide, soil erosion is one of the main causes of soil degradation and the loss of important soil functions. Wind, water and tillage erosion and their environmental, economic and social impacts have been researched for decades. Soil erosion by root and tuber crop harvesting (SLCH), however, is rarely focused in research, although erosion rates can reach up to 22 Mg ha-1 harvest-1 (Parlak et al. 2016).The aim of this study is to raise awareness of SLCH and to advance research on this topic. To achieve this aim, all available peer-reviewed studies on this topic are used to provide an overview of investigated soil erosion rates worldwide and to identify the environmental impact of SLCH. In addition, the differences between SLCH and other forms of erosion are highlighted. Furthermore, important future research aspects for an enhanced understanding of SLCH are identified.Comparing soil loss due to crop harvesting with other forms of erosion, it can be stated that (i) erosion rates of SLCH are as high as for water erosion and wind erosion, (ii) SLCH always and only occurs during the harvest of tuber and root crops, which affected 8.4 % of the world’s arable land in 2019 (1.1 million km²), (iii) SLCH can occur at any relief position and any parent material, thus it can be the only erosion process of an affected field without the appearance of wind or water erosion and (iv) SLCH always affects entire fields that are harvested multiple times over several years, depending on the crop rotation.Based on the reviewed studies, the following further research activities are necessary for a better understanding of the processes of SLCH: (i) global data collection of crops whose erosion rates have not been studied yet, (ii) conduct studies on continents such as North America, South America and Oceania, where data on SLCH erosion rates are currently missing, (iii) development of models to predict SLCH erosion rates and (iv) monitoring the distribution of the adhering soil to evaluate the environmental effects of SLCH. This review shows that further studies on the topic of SLCH are necessary to quantify actual data on erosion rates for different crops in different regions and provide more awareness of this topic in erosion research.

Soil compaction due to field traffic can reduce yields and increase a fields susceptibility to surface runoff and soil erosion. However, detecting and monitoring compacted soils is time and labor intensive. Additionally, most detection methods focus on few points within a field and usually do not provide information on the spatial distribution of soil compaction and its effects on a field scale. In this study, we aim to present a method for detecting potentially compacted areas on field scale using an unpiloted aerial vehicle (UAV). Using an UAV enable the non-inversive collection of field vegetation patterns want, which can be linked to differences in soil properties and soil structure.In two study regions, we monitored six fields for four years. For each field, at least four UAV-flights were carried out per season. The UAV was equipped with a RGB and a multispectral sensor. Spatial corrections and spectral calibrations were performed with ground control points and calibration targets. To analyze the data for patterns in the vegetation, models of plant height and various vegetation indices (NDVI, SAVI, WDRVI, EVI) were calculated and combined with three different clustering algorithms (k-means, fuzzy k-means, CLARA). To validate the identified vegetation patterns, several field campaigns were conducted to analyze soil texture, saturated hydraulic conductivity, air permeability, bulk density, and yield. Our study shows that patterns in the vegetation can be distinguished by their geometry and orientation. Linear patterns running parallel to the tramlines and planar patterns in the headland indicate potential compaction, whereas rounded patterns are indicators for topography changes. Soil samples within the detected linear patterns overall showed an increase in bulk density, and a decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity and air permeability. Yield samples were also reduced in those patterns for all studied crops. Thus, we can conclude that UAV analysis is suitable method for soil compaction detection. However, detected patterns can be overlaid by other causes.

Process‐based model ling has long been used as a well‐suited tool to simulate soil erosion. Despite a large number of scientific articles that emphasize the role of compacted tramlines for soil erosion and surficial nutrient transport, no study exists that integrates these artificial structures into process‐based modelling at catchment scales. Thus, this study aims to quantify the effects of tramline compaction on soil erosion dynamics within a catchment. For this reason, high‐resolution spatial data (1 × 1 m) have been incorporated into the model EROSION 3D, which was used, calibrated, and tested for a soil erosion event with measured discharge and soil loss data. To quantify the contribution of tramlines to soil erosion, two different model parameterizations have been used: the tramline parameterization (TLP) and the common model parameterization (CP) that disregards the tramlines. The results reveal that: (i) the parameterization of tramlines improved model outcomes; (ii) tramlines significantly contribute to overall soil loss and sediment entrance into the channel network; (iii) the bulk density of tramlines is the most important driver of increases in soil erosion and runoff. Moreover, our investigation suggests that the impact of compacted tramlines have long been underestimated in soil erosion modelling and can assist in the assessment of surficial flow path connectivity. Thus, the integration of tramlines into soil erosion modeling is important for the implementation of adequate soil conservation and water protection measures., Federal Ministry of Education and Research (within the BonaRes Framework) http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002347, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5153427

Cultivated fields are repeatedly affected by the impacts of agricultural machinery. Because the agricultural machines in use have different masses and sizes, however, the traffic-induced load inputs are unequally distributed across a field. Currently, the knowledge about spatial distributions of the amount of wheel passes, loads and stresses by farm vehicles is limited. To-date, no model exists, that will enable automated mapping of the spatially distributed intensities of field traffic. To close this gap, the Field Traffic Model (FiTraM) was developed. It calculates the tracks of each tyre based on routes, e.g. dGPS-recordings, in spatially explicit forms. Furthermore, the presented model provides spatial information about the distribution of field traffic intensities such as the number of wheel passes, wheel load and stress inputs. It also considers the changes in wheel load, e.g. caused by payload changes during harvest and by lifting attached implements. The functionality of the model will be demonstrated by calculating the wheel loads, mean contact area stresses and wheel pass frequencies by modelling three typical work processes (ploughing, sowing and harvesting) and a validation dataset for analysing spatial deviations during turning manoeuvres. The model is programmed with Python and Open-Source modules in order to provide access for a wide range of users. FiTraM enables the spatial analysis of agricultural traffic within individual fields and is designed to study the real traffic intensities, which has hardly been examined so far.

“The Anthropocene” currently serves as a framework to acknowledge global human influences on the earth systems. Different prominent authors call for geographers and especially physical geographers to intensify their involvement in the discussions on the theme. A bibliometric analysis shows that geographers are already one of the leading contributors to the keyword Anthropocene in journal articles. While we generally support the standpoint of increased engagement with the topic, we want to emphasize that we need to do more than only attaching the “Anthropocene” label to our daily research practice. A critical engagement with and reflection of the research questions and contexts is needed to play a vital role as discussant in the debate. We should take advantage of the diverse themes, topics and viewpoints of our subject by actively following a more critical approach to our research practices in order to find those geographic ties that join us and our discipline and that enable us to contribute more substantially to the Anthropocene debate.

Soil compaction by field traffic is one of the main threats to all agricultural soils. Besides lower biomass productivity, compacted soils have a reduced regulation function which affects the air, water and nutrient cycles. To evaluate and mitigate soil degradation by field traffic, it is important to know where, when and to what extent soil compaction may occur during certain traffic events.This study presents an approach to assess soil compaction risk at the field scale, considering the spatio-temporal changes of soil strengths and the machinery-induced changes in load and stress. Two newly developed models, the field traffic model “FiTraM” and the spatially explicit soil compaction risk assessment model “SaSCiA”, were used to evaluate the individual soil compaction risk for each field traffic activity during the maize cropping season. RTK-GPS data recorded by all farm vehicles served for the spatial calculation of traffic intensity and changing wheel loads at high spatial resolution (< 30 cm). These data were subsequently used for soil compaction risk assessment based on readily available soil and weather data.Our model results indicated that nearly 95% of a field was trafficked throughout the maize-season; harvest traffic at high wheel load contributed to more than the half of the total trafficked area. Furthermore, the analyses showed that soil compaction risk varies greatly within individual fields. Soil moisture and soil texture variation inside the field results in varying soil strength and, therefore, in varying effects of field traffic on soil functions. Thus, one part of a field can be negatively affected by field traffic through an increase in dry bulk density and a decrease in hydraulic conductivity, while the other part is not affected.In addition to the spatio-temporal assessment of field traffic intensity and soil compaction risk, the presented approach enables the calculation of maximum allowable wheel load until no harmful soil degradation occurs. Thus, the approach may support farmers in their decision-making for a more sustainable soil management.

Soil erosion by water is recognized as the most threatening land degradation process worldwide, reducing natural soil fertility and productivity especially on arable land. Despite advances in soil erosion modelling, one major process, which is rarely investigated, is the effect of soil compaction from field management induced wheel tracks. However, tramlines noticeably contribute to the amount of soil eroded inside a field. To quantify these effects we incorporate high-resolution spatial tramline data into modelling. For simulation, we used the process-based soil erosion model EROSION3D, which has been applied on different fields for a single rainfall event. Model results were compared against measured soil loss. Our investigation showed that i) grid-based models like E3D are able to integrate tramlines, ii) the share of measured erosion between tramline and cultivated areas fits well with measurements for resolution ≤ 1 m, iii) tramline erosion showed a high dependency to the slope angle and iv) soil loss and runoff are generated quicker within tramlines during the erosion event. The results indicate that the integration of tramlines in soil erosion modelling improves the spatial prediction accuracy, and therefore, can be important for soil conservation planning.

Agricultural management is a key force affecting soil processes and functions. Triggered by biophysical constraints as well as rapid structural and technological developments, new management practices are emerging with largely unknown impacts on soil processes and functions. This impedes assessments of the potential of such emerging practices for sustainable intensification, a paradigm coined to address the growing demand for food and nonfood products. In terms of soil management, sustainable intensification means that soil productivity is increased while other soil functions and services, such as carbon storage and habitat for organisms, are simultaneously maintained or even improved. In this paper we provide an overview of research challenges to better understand how emerging soil management practices affect soil processes and functions. We distinguish four categories of soil management practices: spatial arrangements of cropping systems, crops and rotations, mechanical pressures, and inputs into the soil. Key research needs identified for each include nutrient efficiency in agroforestry versus conventional cropping systems, soil-rhizosphere microbiome elucidation to understand the interacting roles of crops and rotations, the effects of soil compaction on soil–plant–atmosphere interactions, and the ecotoxicity of plastics, pharmaceuticals and other pollutants that are introduced into the soil. We establish an interdisciplinary, systemic approach to soil science and include cross-cutting research activities related to process modeling, data management, stakeholder interaction, sustainability assessment and governance. The identification of soil research challenges from the perspective of agricultural management facilitates cooperation between different scientific disciplines in the field of sustainable agricultural production.

Seit der Sesshaftwerdung gestaltet der Mensch seine Umwelt, um Nahrungsmittel zu produzieren. Durch umfangreiche Masnahmen wie Flurbereinigung und Drainierung entstand daraus die Landschaft, die wir heute als „Agrarlandschaft“ bezeichnen. Die Boden in der Agrarlandschaft sind dabei die Grundlage unserer Ernahrung. Die stetig wachsendende Weltbevolkerung und die Zunahme des Wohlstands sorgen jedoch dafur, dass die Boden zunehmend unter Druck geraten. Einerseits durch Flachenkonkurrenz. So werden in Deutschland taglich 58 ha Flache fur Siedlung und Verkehr versiegelt und stehen somit der agrarischen Nutzung nicht mehr zur Verfugung. Andererseits durch die ackerbauliche Nutzung selbst. Beispielsweise beeintrachtigt die intensive und nicht standortangepasste Bodenbearbeitung die Bodenstruktur und nimmt so Einfluss auf zahlreiche Bodenfunktionen. Die Folge ist eine Abnahme des naturlichen standortlichen Leistungsvermogens. Um eine nachhaltige Nutzung der Boden und ihren Schutz gleichermasen zu gewahrleisten, bedarf es einer sorgsamen Analyse der mit ihrer Nutzung verbundenen okosystemaren Konflikte. Darauf aufbauend lassen sich Losungsansatze entwickeln, die alle Akteure betreffen – vom Konsumierenden uber die Landwirte*innen bis hin zu den Entscheidungstragern*innen aus Politik und Gesetzgebung. Der Beitrag gibt einen Einblick in die Konfliktfelder innerhalb der Agrarlandschaft an den Beispielen Flachennutzung, Bodenbearbeitung und Bodenbefahrung und diskutiert mogliche Losungsansatze.

While water and wind erosion are part of intensive research activities all over the world, soil loss due to crop harvesting (SLCH) is rarely acknowledged. SLCH occurs in tuber and root crops, which were cultivated on at least 1.1 million km2 worldwide in 2019. Thus, 8.4% of arable soils were affected by this kind of soil loss which can reach erosion rates of 22 Mg ha−1 harvest−1. Although these erosion rates are as high as for water and wind erosion, there are only 27 scientific references available that focus on SLCH. Hence, the relationship between possible environmental degradation and perception in science appears to be ambivalent. The aim of this review is to raise awareness of SLCH and harvest erosion. To achieve this aim, firstly the current state of knowledge on SLCH is summarized based on peer reviewed and international references. A special focus is on the rates of SLCH, on available regression equations to calculate the soil losses by harvest and on the environmental effects. Secondly, important research gaps and necessary research activities are identified. It becomes apparent that (i) new data is required which considers developments in harvest techniques and soil management, (ii) data from North America, South America and Oceania is urgently needed as no references for these regions are available yet, (iii) models to predict SLCH are necessary and (iv) research is required on the fate of the adhering soil within the landscape and on its environmental effects.

In addition to various positive aspects, long-term reduced tillage may cause disadvantages such as increased weed pressure and soil compaction. Thus, single inversion tillage is customarily used for overcoming these drawbacks; however, the effects on the enhanced soil functions are unknown. The main objective of this study was therefore to assess whether improved soil physical properties following long-term reduced tillage remain after one-time inversion tillage by mouldboard plough. The study was undertaken on a silt loam field in Lower Saxony, Germany. Since 1996, this field has been subdivided into three treatments; one was managed conventionally using a mouldboard plough (CT), while on the others a chisel plough (RT1) and a disc harrow (RT2) were employed. In October 2014, the entire field was mouldboard ploughed. The following year, four field campaigns were conducted to compare the soil physical properties of the continuously conventional tilled plot with those affected by one-time inversion tillage (RT1 and RT2). Dry bulk density (DBD), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and infiltration rate [K(h)] were analysed in untrafficked and trafficked areas in each plot. There were clear differences between CT and RT. At all sampling dates, both RT plots had higher Ks and K(h) compared with CT. These differences also occurred to some extent on the trafficked areas. This suggests that improved soil hydraulic properties remained after one-time inversion tillage of a long-term reduced tilled field. Thus, one-time inversion tillage may offer a suitable measure for overcoming some of the main disadvantages associated with long-term reduced tillage, while preserving the positive effects on soil physical properties.

The increasing use of biogas, produced from energy crops like silage maize, is supposed to noticeably change the structures and patterns of agricultural landscapes in Europe. The main objective of our study is to quantify this assumed impact of intensive biogas production with the example of an agrarian landscape in Northern Germany. Therefore, we used three different datasets, Corine Land Cover (CLC), local agricultural statistics (Agrar-Struktur-Erhebung, ASE), and data on biogas power plants. Via kernel density analysis, we delineated impact zones which represent different levels of bioenergy-generated transformations of agrarian landscapes. We cross-checked the results by the analyses of the land cover and landscape pattern changes from 2000 to 2012 inside the impact zones. We found significant correlations between the installed electrical capacity (IC) and land cover changes. According to our findings, the landscape pattern of cropland&mdash, expressed via landscape metrics (mean patch size (MPS), total edge (TE), mean shape index (MSI), mean fractal dimension index (MFRACT)&mdash, increased and that of pastures decreased since the beginning of biogas production. Moreover, our study indicates that the increasing number of biogas power plants in certain areas is accompanied with a continuous reduction in crop diversity and a homogenization of land use in the same areas. We found maximum degrees of land use homogenisation in areas with highest IC. Our results show that a Kernel density map of the IC of biogas power plants might offer a suitable first indicator for monitoring and quantifying landscape change induced by biogas production.

Weathering pits form on various rock types worldwide and often contain unique ecosystems in periodically flooded or desiccated depressions. However, little is known about soil formation in such pits. Here, we investigated two weathering pits (WP1 and WP2) on the summit of Enchanted Rock, a granitic exfoliation dome in central Texas. We aimed at unravelling the origin of the parent material, evaluating evidence for dating the soil development, and identifying the major soil forming processes. We sampled five soil profile cores in each pit and analyzed diverse soil properties, such as C and N contents, pH, exchangeable cations, texture, and iron oxides. In addition, we performed energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and applied optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and 14C dating analyses. Both pits were affected by redoximorphic features and organic matter accumulation (2.5 ± 1.4% C in the topsoil). WP1 revealed Na accumulation in the subsoil and pronounced translocation of clay minerals, which accumulated at the bottom (up to 50% clay in the subsoil, 13–34% in topsoil). Such processes were absent in WP2, in which clay contents and their variations were comparatively small (16–25%). Here, acidic and nutrient poor soil horizons (pH 4.0–4.4, 0.5–1.5% C, 4.1–4.6 mg kg−1P) alternated several times with nutrient rich and neutral soil horizons (pH 5.1–5.6, 2.0–2.5% C, 23–33 mg kg−1P). This phenomenon was observed down to the bottom of the pit. We conclude that the parent material for soil development consists of three sources: autochthonous material from in-situ weathering of the solid rock, granitic grus particles from upslope positions, and eolian sediments from the area surrounding Enchanted Rock. Phases of sedimentation may have alternated with phases of stability and topsoil formation, resulting in buried former topsoils. OSL dating revealed that sedimentation began not later than 5110 years ago in 42 cm depth of WP1 and 2290 years ago in 26 cm depth of WP2. Due to contamination by younger carbon, 14C dates underestimate the beginning of soil development. The intensity of post sedimentary soil forming processes (clay mineral translocation, sodium enrichment, ferrolysis, organic matter accumulation) depends on the age of the pit and on its morphology, i.e. on the possibility of water and dissolved substances running off.

Measuring penetration resistance (PR) is a common technique for evaluating the effects of field management on soils. This study focuses on the effects of long-term tillage on the spatial distribution of PR, comparing reduced and conventional tillage (CT) practices. The study site, located in Lower Saxony (Germany), has been subdivided into three plots, with one plot having been managed conventionally, whereas reduced tillage (RT) practices have been applied to the other two. In total, PR was measured at 63 randomly selected points. The PR data were stepwise interpolated using kriging with external drift. Core samples have been taken at 20 additional sites. The results show significant differences in PR between the different tillage practices. Within the conventionally managed plot, PR ranges to 2.3 MPa less in the topsoil than under RT. However, measured saturated hydraulic conductivity and amount of biopores at the depth of 30–35 cm are significantly greater under RT, indicating improved soil properties under RT. Comparisons between the headlands (HL) and the inner field point out the effects of intense field traffic in the HL, where maximum PR values of about 6 MPa have been measured. The spatial prediction of PR values show that long-term effects of different tillage practices result in clearly structured patterns between CT and RT and the HL. Combining extensive PR measurements and point measurements of additional soil properties supports an adequate interpretation of PR data and can lead to fieldwide derivation of soil functions influenced by field management.

Conservation agriculture may lead to increased penetration resistance due to soil compaction. To loosen the topsoil and lower the compaction, one-time inversion tillage (OTIT) is a measure frequently used in conservation agriculture. However, the duration of the positive effects of this measure on penetration resistance is sparsely known. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the spatio-temporal behavior of penetration resistance after OTIT as an indicator for soil compaction. A field subdivided into three differently tilled plots (conventional tillage with moldboard plough to 30 cm depth (CT), reduced tillage with chisel plough to 25 cm depth (RT1) and reduced tillage with disk harrow to 10 cm depth (RT2)) served as study area. In 2014, the entire field was tilled by moldboard plough and penetration resistance was recorded in the following 5 years. The results showed that OTIT reduced the penetration resistance in both RT-plots and led to an approximation in all three plots. However, after 18 (RT2) and 30 months (RT1), the differences in penetration resistance were higher (p &lt, 0.01) in both RT-plots compared to CT. Consequently, OTIT can effectively remove the compacted layer developed in conservation agriculture. However, the lasting effect seems to be relatively short.

Avoiding soil compaction is one of the objectives to ensure sustainable agriculture. Subsoil compaction in particular can be irreversible. Frequent passages by (increasingly heavy) agricultural machinery are one trigger for compaction. The aim of this work is to map and analyze the extent of traffic intensity over four years. The analysis is made for complete seasons and individual operations. The traffic intensity is distinguished into areas with more than five wheel passes, more than 5 Mg and 3 Mg wheel load. From 2014 to 2018, 63 work processes on a field were recorded and the wheel load and wheel passes were modeled spatially with FiTraM. Between 82% (winter wheat) and 100% (sugar beet) of the total infield area is trafficked during a season. The sugar beet season has the highest intensities. High intensities of more than five wheel passes and more than 5 Mg wheel load occur mainly during harvests in the headland. At wheel load &ge, 3 Mg, soil tillage also stresses the headland. In summary, no work process stays below one of the upper thresholds set. Based on the results, the importance of a soil-conserving management becomes obvious in order to secure the soil for agriculture in a sustainable way.

Soil erosion by water is one of the main soil degradation processes worldwide, which leads to declines in natural soil fertility and productivity especially on arable land. Despite advances in soil erosion modelling, the effects of compacted tramlines are usually not considered. However, tramlines noticeably contribute to the amount of soil eroded inside a field. To quantify these effects we incorporated high-resolution spatial tramline data into modelling. For simulation, the process-based soil erosion model EROSION3D has been applied on different fields for a single rainfall event. To find a reasonable balance between computing time and prediction quality, different grid cell sizes (5, 1, and 0.5 m) were used and modelling results were compared against measured soil loss. We found that (i) grid-based models like E3D are able to integrate tramlines, (ii) the share of measured erosion between tramline and cultivated areas fits well with measurements for resolution &le, 1 m, (iii) tramline erosion showed a high dependency to the slope angle and (iv) soil loss and runoff are generated quicker within tramlines during the event. The results indicate that the integration of tramlines in soil erosion modelling improves the spatial prediction accuracy, and therefore, can be important for soil conservation planning.

Soil compaction caused by field traffic is one of the main threats to agricultural landscapes. Compacted soils have a reduced hydraulic conductivity, lower plant growth and increased surface runoff resulting in numerous environmental issues such as increased nutrient leaching and flood risk. Mitigating soil compaction, therefore, is a major goal for a sustainable agriculture and environmental protection. To prevent undesirable effects of field traffic, it is essential to know where and when soil compaction may occur. This study developed a model for soil compaction risk assessment of arable soils at regional scale. A combination of (i) soil, weather, crop type and machinery information; (ii) a soil moisture model and (iii) soil compaction models forms the SaSCiA-model (Spatially explicit Soil Compaction risk Assessment). The SaSCiA-model computes daily maps of soil compaction risk and associated area statistics for varying depths at actual field conditions and for entire regions. Applications with open access data in two different study areas in northern Germany demonstrated the model’s applicability. Soil compaction risks strongly varied in space and time throughout the year. SaSCiA allows a detailed spatio-temporal analysis of soil compaction risk at the regional scale, which exceed those of currently available models. Applying SaSCiA may support farmers, stakeholders and consultants in making decision for a more sustainable agriculture.

The present study analyzes a short-term observation of a newly created nature conservation area. The aim was to investigate different effects of grazing by cattle and, otherwise, the frequent mowing on the development of nutrient contents of soils. The results are typical for the strong sandy Weichselian outwash plain in the north of Central Europe (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany). Two neighboring testing areas of different use and sowed with an agricultural grass were observed for more than two years. The first area had been grazed intensively by cattle and the other one had been mowed twice a year. During this time, several nutrients and other soil parameters have been analyzed at regular intervals. Furthermore, we made observations about soil compaction and the succession of vegetation. The results show a stronger reduction especially of nitrogenous nutrients on the mowing area (-25%). In contrast, on the grazing area, the contents of nitrogen doubled during two growing seasons (+125%). However, a high atmospheric input of nitrogen strengthened the result. Less conclusive were the results about the contents of potassium, phosphorus and SOM. Therefore, mowing could be advised, if quick results are required concerning the impoverishment of soils. Furthermore, the development of succession vegetation was quite different on both areas with the number of plant species 12% higher on the grazing area. However, long-term but non-intensive cattle-grazing must still be rated as an excellent method of maintenance for this type of cultural landscape. It corresponds with the centuries-old land-use practice in this type of landscape and promotes high level of biodiversity. Therefore, there is nothing that speaks against non-intensive grazing from the beginning on a newly created nature-protection area within a long-term conception of nature conservation. The removal of A horizons should be avoided as it damages Holocene soil profies and has only short-term effects.