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Breast reconstructive surgery has changed significantly over the past decade. The incidence of nipple-sparing procedures and prophylactic mastectomy has also increased significantly as women and their surgeons use shared decision-making strategies. The following case history of two sisters, one with breast cancer and one at elevated risk for breast cancer, highlights the current standard of care with newer gold-standard procedures for mastectomy and subsequent reconstruction. A comparison of types of mastectomies, steps in reconstruction, and reconstruction options are discussed.

Multi-antigen immunotherapy approaches against Staphylococcus aureus are expected to have the best chance of clinical success when used in combinatorial therapy, potentially incorporating opsonic killing of bacteria and toxin neutralization. We recently reported the development of a murine monoclonal antibody specific for the immunodominant staphylococcal antigen A (IsaA), which showed highly efficient staphylococcal killing in experimental infection models of S. aureus. If IsaA-specific antibodies are to be used as a component of combination therapy in humans, the binding specificity and biological activity of the humanized variant must be preserved. Here, we describe the functional characterization of a humanized monoclonal IgG1 variant designated, hUK-66. The humanized antibody showed comparable binding kinetics to those of its murine parent, and recognized the target antigen IsaA on the surface of clinically relevant S. aureus lineages. Furthermore, hUK-66 enhances the killing of S. aureus in whole blood (a physiological environment) samples from healthy subjects and patients prone to staphylococcal infections such as diabetes and dialysis patients, and patients with generalized artery occlusive disease indicating no interference with already present natural antibodies. Taken together, these data indicate that hUK-66 mediates bacterial killing even in high risk patients and thus, could play a role for immunotherapy strategies to combat severe S. aureus infections.

GAK (cyclin G-associated kinase) is a key regulator of clathrin-coated vesicle trafficking and plays a central role during development. Additionally, due to the unusually high plasticity of its catalytic domain, it is a frequent ‘off-target’ of clinical kinase inhibitors associated with respiratory side effects of these drugs. In the present paper, we determined the crystal structure of the GAK catalytic domain alone and in complex with specific single-chain antibodies (nanobodies). GAK is constitutively active and weakly associates in solution. The GAK apo structure revealed a dimeric inactive state of the catalytic domain mediated by an unusual activation segment interaction. Co-crystallization with the nanobody NbGAK_4 trapped GAK in a dimeric arrangement similar to the one observed in the apo structure, whereas NbGAK_1 captured the activation segment of monomeric GAK in a well-ordered conformation, representing features of the active kinase. The presented structural and biochemical data provide insight into the domain plasticity of GAK and demonstrate the utility of nanobodies to gain insight into conformational changes of dynamic molecules. In addition, we present structural data on the binding mode of ATP mimetic inhibitors and enzyme kinetic data, which will support rational inhibitor design of inhibitors to reduce the off-target effect on GAK., Cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK) is a regulator of clathrin-coated vesicle trafficking. The determined crystal structures of GAK in complex with specific single chain antibodies (nanobodies) revealed the domain plasticity of this kinase and unusual activation segment architecture.

Histone H3 trimethylation of lysine 9 (H3K9me3) and proteins of the heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) family are hallmarks of heterochromatin, a state of compacted DNA essential for genome stability and long-term transcriptional silencing. The mechanisms by which H3K9me3 and HP1 contribute to chromatin condensation have been speculative and controversial. Here we demonstrate that human HP1β is a prototypic HP1 protein exemplifying most basal chromatin binding and effects. These are caused by dimeric and dynamic interaction with highly enriched H3K9me3 and are modulated by various electrostatic interfaces. HP1β bridges condensed chromatin, which we postulate stabilizes the compacted state. In agreement, HP1β genome-wide localization follows H3K9me3-enrichment and artificial bridging of chromatin fibres is sufficient for maintaining cellular heterochromatic conformation. Overall, our findings define a fundamental mechanism for chromatin higher order structural changes caused by HP1 proteins, which might contribute to the plastic nature of condensed chromatin., Heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), including HP1 α, β and γ, is a family of non-histone chromatin factors thought to be involved in chromatin organization. Here, the authors show that dimeric HP1β interacts dynamically with H3K9me3, a hallmark of heterochromatin, and bridges condensed chromatin.

cAMP-dependent protein kinases are reversibly complexed with any of the four isoforms of regulatory (R) subunits, which contain either a substrate or a pseudosubstrate autoinhibitory domain. The human protein kinase X (PrKX) is an exemption as it is inhibited only by pseudosubstrate inhibitors, i.e. RIα or RIβ but not by substrate inhibitors RIIα or RIIβ. Detailed examination of the capacity of five PrKX-like kinases ranging from human to protozoa (Trypanosoma brucei) to form holoenzymes with human R subunits in living cells shows that this preference for pseudosubstrate inhibitors is evolutionarily conserved. To elucidate the molecular basis of this inhibitory pattern, we applied bioluminescence resonance energy transfer and surface plasmon resonance in combination with site-directed mutagenesis. We observed that the conserved αH-αI loop residue Arg-283 in PrKX is crucial for its RI over RII preference, as a R283L mutant was able to form a holoenzyme complex with wild type RII subunits. Changing the corresponding αH-αI loop residue in PKA Cα (L277R), significantly destabilized holoenzyme complexes in vitro, as cAMP-mediated holoenzyme activation was facilitated by a factor of 2–4, and lead to a decreased affinity of the mutant C subunit for R subunits, significantly affecting RII containing holoenzymes.

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) include a family of scaffolding proteins that target protein kinase A (PKA) and other signaling proteins to cellular compartments and thereby confine the activities of the associated proteins to distinct regions within cells. AKAPs bind PKA directly. The interaction is mediated by the dimerization and docking domain of regulatory subunits of PKA and the PKA-binding domain of AKAPs. Analysis of the interactions between the dimerization and docking domain and various PKA-binding domains yielded a generalized motif allowing the identification of AKAPs. Our bioinformatics and peptide array screening approaches based on this signature motif identified GSKIP (glycogen synthase kinase 3beta interaction protein) as an AKAP. GSKIP directly interacts with PKA and GSK3beta (glycogen synthase kinase 3beta). It is widely expressed and facilitates phosphorylation and thus inactivation of GSK3beta by PKA. GSKIP contains the evolutionarily conserved domain of unknown function 727. We show here that this domain of GSKIP and its vertebrate orthologues binds both PKA and GSK3beta and thereby provides a mechanism for the integration of PKA and GSK3beta signaling pathways.

Protein kinase A (PKA) isozymes are distinguishable by the inhibitory pattern of their regulatory (R) subunits with RI subunits containing a pseudophosphorylation P 0 -site and RII subunits being a substrate. Under physiological conditions, RII does not inhibit PrKX, the human X chromosome encoded PKA catalytic (C) subunit. Using a live cell Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (BRET) assay, Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) and kinase activity assays, we identified the P 0 -position of the R subunits as the determinant of PrKX autoinhibition. Holoenzyme formation only takes place with an alanine at position P 0 , whereas RI subunits containing serine, phosphoserine or aspartate do not bind PrKX. Surprisingly, PrKX reversibly associates with RII when changing P 0 from serine to alanine. In contrast, PKA-Cα forms holoenzyme complexes with all wildtype and mutant R subunits; however, holoenzyme re-activation by cAMP is severely affected. Only PKA type II or mutant PKA type I holoenzymes (P 0 : Ser or Asp) are able to dissociate fully upon maximally elevated intracellular cAMP. The data are of particular significance for understanding PKA isoform-specific activation patterns in living cells.

The peroxisomal matrix protein import is facilitated by cycling import receptors that shuttle between the cytosol and the peroxisomal membrane. The import receptor Pex5p mediates the import of proteins harboring a peroxisomal targeting signal of type I (PTS1). Purified recombinant Pex5p forms a dimeric complex with the PTS1-protein Pcs60p in vitro with a KD of 0.19 μm. To analyze the structural basis for receptor-cargo recognition, the PTS1 and adjacent amino acids of Pcs60p were systematically scanned for Pex5p binding by an in vitro site-directed photo-cross-linking approach. The cross-linked binding regions of the receptor were subsequently identified by high resolution mass spectrometry. Most cross-links were found with TPR6, TPR7, as well as the 7C-loop of Pex5p. Surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed a bivalent interaction mode for Pex5p and Pcs60p. Interestingly, Pcs60p lacking its C-terminal tripeptide sequence was efficiently cross-linked to the same regions of Pex5p. The KD value of the interaction of truncated Pcs60p and Pex5p was in the range of 7.7 μm. Isothermal titration calorimetry and surface plasmon resonance measurements revealed a monovalent binding mode for the interaction of Pex5p and Pcs60p lacking the PTS1. Our data indicate that Pcs60p contains a second contact site for its receptor Pex5p, beyond the C-terminal tripeptide. The physiological relevance of the ancillary binding region was supported by in vivo import studies. The bivalent binding mode might be explained by a two-step concept as follows: first, cargo recognition and initial tethering by the PTS1-receptor Pex5p; second, lock-in of receptor and cargo.

An assay was developed for the characterization of protein kinase inhibitors in lysates of mammalian cells based on the measurement of FRET between overexpressed red fluorescent protein (TagRFP)-fused protein kinases (PKs) and luminophore-labeled small-molecule inhibitors (ARC-Photo probes). Two types of the assay, one using TagRFP as the photoluminescence donor together with ARC-Photo probes containing a red fluorophore dye as acceptor, and the other using TagRFP as the acceptor fluorophore in combination with a terbium cryptate-based long-lifetime photoluminescence donor, were used for FRET-based measurements in lysates of the cells overexpressing TagRFP-fused PKs. The second variant of the assay enabled the performance of the measurements under time-resolved conditions that led to substantially higher values of the signal/background ratio and further improved the reliability of the assay.

Protein kinase activity is regulated not only by direct strategies affecting activity but also by spatial and temporal regulatory mechanisms. Kinase signaling pathways are coordinated by scaffolding proteins that orchestrate the assembly of multi-protein complexes. One family of such scaffolding proteins are the A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). AKAPs share the commonality of binding cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). In addition, they bind further signaling proteins and kinase substrates and tether such multi-protein complexes to subcellular locations. The A-kinase binding (AKB) domain of AKAPs typically contains a conserved helical motif that interacts directly with the dimerization/docking (D/D) domain of the regulatory subunits of PKA. Based on a pull-down proteomics approach, we identified neurochondrin (neurite-outgrowth promoting protein) as a previously unidentified AKAP. Here, we show that neurochondrin interacts directly with PKA through a novel mechanism that involves two distinct binding regions. In addition, we demonstrate that neurochondrin has strong isoform selectivity towards the RIIα subunit of PKA with nanomolar affinity. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Inhibitors of Protein Kinases.

CAPSULE: BACKGROUND: Chromatin-HP1 (heterochromatin protein 1) interaction is crucial for heterochromatin assembly. RESULTS: hHP1β uses alternative interfaces to bind nucleosomes depending on histone 3 methylation within a highly dynamic complex. CONCLUSION: hHP1β explores chromatin for sites of methyl-mark enrichment where it can bind histone 3 tails from adjacent nucleosomes. SIGNIFICANCE: We provide a conceptual framework to understand the molecular basis of dynamic interactions regulated by histone modification. Binding of heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) to the histone H3 lysine 9 trimethylation (H3K9me3) mark is a hallmark of establishment and maintenance of heterochromatin. Although genetic and cell biological aspects have been elucidated, the molecular details of HP1 binding to H3K9me3 nucleosomes are unknown. Using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and biophysical measurements on fully defined recombinant experimental systems, we demonstrate that H3K9me3 works as an on/off switch regulating distinct binding modes of hHP1β to the nucleosome. The methyl-mark determines a highly flexible and very dynamic interaction of the chromodomain of hHP1β with the H3-tail. There are no other constraints of interaction or additional multimerization interfaces. In contrast, in the absence of methylation, the hinge region and the N-terminal tail form weak nucleosome contacts mainly with DNA. In agreement with the high flexibility within the hHP1β-H3K9me3 nucleosome complex, the chromoshadow domain does not provide a direct binding interface. Our results report the first detailed structural analysis of a dynamic protein-nucleosome complex directed by a histone modification and provide a conceptual framework for understanding similar interactions in the context of chromatin.

The hexahistidine tag is one of most commonly used fusion tags in affinity purification of recombinantly expressed proteins. Real-time binding analysis using Biacore technology allows in-depth characterization of respective association and dissociation patterns of potential binders. Here we tested four commercially available anti-His antibodies for reversible capturing of His-tagged proteins as a basis for a subsequent interaction analysis with non-His-tagged proteins. Anti-penta-, anti-hexa- and anti-RGS-(His)4 antibodies from different distributors were covalently coupled to Biacore sensor chips. Parallel binding studies of 12 heterogeneously sized RGS-(His)6-tagged (Arg-Gly-Ser-(His)6) proteins revealed that the slowest dissociation rate was obtained when using an anti-RGS-(His)4 antibody. Thus in a sandwich binding assay the anti-RGS-(His)4 antibody can be utilized as an appropriate tool for stable yet reversible capturing of RGS-(His)6-tagged proteins with a non-His-tagged protein.