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Red supergiants (RSGs) represent a late evolutionary stage of massive stars. Recent observations reveal that the observed luminosity range of RSGs in young open clusters is wider than expected from single star evolution models. Binary evolution effects have been suggested as a possible explanation. Here, we analyse 3670 detailed binary-evolution models, as well as corresponding single-star models, to probe the contribution of binary mass transfer and binary mergers on the luminosity distribution of RSGs in star clusters with ages up to 100 Myr. We confirm that the expected luminosity range of RSGs in a coeval population can span a factor of ten, as a consequence of mergers between two main-sequence stars, which reproduces the observed red supergiant luminosity ranges in rich clusters well. While the luminosity increase as consequence of mass transfer is more limited, it may help to increase the number of overluminous RSGs. However, our results also demonstrate that binary effects alone are insufficient to account for the number of RSGs found with luminosities of up to three times those predicted by current single-star models. We discuss observational accuracy, rotational mixing, age spread, and intrinsic RSG variability as possible explanations. Further observations of RSGs in young open clusters, in particular studies of their intrinsic brightness variability, appear crucial for disentangling these effects., Comment: 24 pages, 19 figures. Accepted for Publication in Astrophysical Journal Letters (ApJL)

Galactic double white dwarfs will be prominent gravitational-wave sources for the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA). While previous studies have primarily focused on formation scenarios in which binaries form and evolve in isolation, we present the first detailed study of the role of triple stellar evolution in forming the population of LISA double white dwarfs. In this work, we present the first detailed study of the role of triple stellar evolution in forming the population of LISA double white dwarfs. We use the multiple stellar evolution code (MSE) to model the stellar evolution, binary interactions, and the dynamics of triple star systems then use a Milky Way-like galaxy from the TNG50 simulations to construct a representative sample of LISA double white dwarfs. In our simulations about $7\times10^6$ Galactic double white dwarfs in the LISA frequency bandwidth originate from triple systems, whereas $\sim4\times10^6$ form from isolated binary stars. The properties of double white dwarfs formed in triples closely resemble those formed from isolated binaries, but we also find a small number of systems $\sim\mathcal{O}(10)$ that reach extreme eccentricities $(>0.9)$, a feature unique to the dynamical formation channels. Our population produces $\approx 10^{4} $ individually resolved double white dwarfs (from triple and binary channels) and an unresolved stochastic foreground below the level of the LISA instrumental noise. About $57\,\%$ of double white dwarfs from triple systems retain a bound third star when entering the LISA frequency bandwidth. However, we expect the tertiary stars to be too distant to have a detectable imprint in the gravitational-wave signal of the inner binary., Comment: 16 pages, 13 figures

Planets orbiting one of the two stars in a binary are vulnerable to gravitational perturbations from the other star. Particularly, highly eccentric companion stars risk disrupting planetary orbits, such as in the extreme system TOI 4633 where close encounters between the companion and a gas giant planet in the habitable zone make it one of the most fragile systems discovered so far. Here, we report that TOI 4633's planet likely survived these encounters throughout the system's age by orbiting retrograde relative to the binary, stabilised by the Coriolis force. Using direct $N$-body simulations, we show it otherwise tends to collide with the binary stars or becomes free-floating after getting ejected. A retrograde planetary orbit has profound implications for TOI 4633's formation and evolution, suggesting an extraordinary history where its eccentric companion was likely randomly captured after planet formation in a single-star system. Alternatively, if stars and planet are born in situ from the same gas clump, we show the planet must have formed at sub-snow-line distances, contrary to the conventional core-accretion model. Our study highlights the importance of considering the long-term stability ($\gtrsim\rm Gyr$) of planets in eccentric binaries and demonstrates that the mere existence in such dynamically hostile environments places strong constraints on their orbital configuration and formation., Comment: 22 pages, 7 figures, 1 table

Compact binaries containing hot subdwarfs and white dwarfs have the potential to evolve into a variety of explosive transients. These systems could also explain hypervelocity runaway stars such as US 708. We use the detailed binary evolution code MESA to evolve hot subdwarf and white dwarf stars interacting in binaries. We explore their evolution towards double detonation supernovae, helium novae, or double white dwarfs. Our grid of 3120 models maps from initial conditions such as orbital period and masses of hot subdwarf and white dwarf to these outcomes. The minimum amount of helium required to ignite the helium shell that leads to a double detonation supernova in our grid is $\approx 0.05 \, \mathrm{M_{\odot}}$, likely too large to produce spectra similar to normal type Ia supernovae, but compatible with inferred helium shell masses from some observed peculiar type I supernovae. We also provide the helium shell masses for our double white dwarf systems, with a maximum He shell mass of $\approx 0.18\,\mathrm{M_{\odot}}$. In our double detonation systems, the orbital velocity of the surviving donor star ranges from $\approx 450 \, \mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}$ to $\approx 1000 \, \mathrm{km\,s^{-1}}$. Among the surviving donors, we also estimate the runaway velocities of proto-white dwarfs, which have higher runaway velocities than hot subdwarf stars of the same mass. Our grid will provide a first-order estimate of the potential outcomes for the observation of binaries containing hot subdwarfs and white dwarfs from future missions like Gaia, LSST, and LISA., Comment: 15 pages, 11 figures, comments welcome

Massive stars mainly form in close binaries, where their mutual interactions can profoundly alter their evolutionary paths. Evolved binaries consisting of a massive OB-type main-sequence star with a stripped helium star or a compact companion represent a crucial stage in the evolution towards double compact objects, whose mergers are (potentially) detectable via gravitational waves. The recent detection of X-ray quiet OB+black hole binaries and OB+stripped helium star binaries has set the stage for discovering more of these systems in the near future. In this work, based on 3670 detailed binary-evolution models and using empirical distributions of initial binary parameters, we compute the expected population of such evolved massive binaries in coeval stellar populations, including stars in star clusters and in galaxies with starburst activities, for ages up to 100 Myr. Our results are vividly illustrated in an animation that shows the evolution of these binaries in the color-magnitude diagram over time. We find that the number of OB+black hole binaries peaks around 10 Myr, and OB+neutron star binaries are most abundant at approximately 20 Myr. Both black holes and neutron stars can potentially be found in populations with ages up to 90 Myr. Additionally, we analyze the properties of such binaries at specific ages. We find that OB+helium stars and OB+black hole binaries are likely to be identifiable as single-lined spectroscopic binaries. Our research serves as a guide for future observational efforts to discover such binaries in young star clusters and starburst environments., Comment: 32 pages, 15 figures. Accepted for Publication in Astrophysical Journal Letters (ApJL)

The nature of progenitors of Type Ia supernovae has long been debated, primarily due to the elusiveness of the progenitor systems to traditional electromagnetic observation methods. We argue that gravitational wave observations with the upcoming Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) offer the most promising way to test one of the leading progenitor scenarios - the double-degenerate scenario, which involves a binary system of two white dwarf stars. In this study we review published results, supplementing them with additional calculations for the context of Type Ia supernovae. We discuss the fact that LISA will be able to provide a complete sample of double white dwarf Type Ia supernova progenitors with orbital periods shorter than 16-11 minutes (gravitational wave frequencies above 2-3 millihertz). Such a sample will enable a statistical validation of the double-degenerate scenario by simply counting whether LISA detects enough double white dwarf binaries to account for the measured Type Ia merger rate in Milky Way-like galaxies. Additionally, we illustrate how LISA's capability to measure the chirp mass will set lower bounds on the primary mass, revealing whether detected double white dwarf binaries will eventually end up as a Type Ia supernova. We estimate that the expected LISA constraints on the Type Ia merger rate for the Milky Way will be 4-9%. We also discuss the potential gravitational wave signal from a Type Ia supernova assuming a double-detonation mechanism and explore how multi-messenger observations could significantly advance our understanding of these transient phenomena., Comment: accepted version

Stellar mergers are one important path to highly magnetised stars. Mergers of two low-mass white dwarfs may create up to every third hot subdwarf star. The merging process is usually assumed to dramatically amplify magnetic fields. However, so far only four highly magnetised hot subdwarf stars have been found, suggesting a fraction of less than $1\%$. We present two high-resolution magnetohydrodynamical (MHD) simulations of the merger of two helium white dwarfs in a binary system with the same total mass of $0.6\,M_\odot$. We analysed an equal-mass merger with two $0.3\,M_\odot$ white dwarfs, and an unequal-mass merger with white dwarfs of $0.25\,M_\odot$ and $0.35\,M_\odot$. We simulated the inspiral, merger, and further evolution of the merger remnant for about $50$ rotations. We found efficient magnetic field amplification in both mergers via a small-scale dynamo, reproducing previous results of stellar merger simulations. The magnetic field saturates at a similar strength for both simulations. We then identified a second phase of magnetic field amplification in both merger remnants that happens on a timescale of several tens of rotational periods of the merger remnant. This phase generates a large-scale ordered azimuthal field via a large-scale dynamo driven by the magneto-rotational instability. Finally, we speculate that in the unequal-mass merger remnant, helium burning will initially start in a shell around a cold core, rather than in the centre. This forms a convection zone that coincides with the region that contains most of the magnetic energy, and likely destroys the strong, ordered field. Ohmic resistivity might then quickly erase the remaining small-scale field. Therefore, the mass ratio of the initial merger could be the selecting factor that decides if a merger remnant will stay highly magnetised long after the merger., Comment: 13 pages, 10 figures, accepted by A&A, comments welcome

A substantial fraction of stars can be found in wide binaries with projected separations between $\sim10^2$ and $10^5\,\rm AU$. In the standard lore of binary physics, these would evolve as effectively single stars that remotely orbit one another on stationary Keplerian ellipses. However, embedded in their Galactic environment their low binding energy makes them exceptionally prone to perturbations from the gravitational potential of the Milky Way and encounters with passing stars. Employing a fully relativistic $N$-body integration scheme, we study the impact of these perturbations on the orbital evolution of wide binaries along their trajectory through the Milky Way. Our analysis reveals that the torques exerted by the Galaxy can cause large-amplitude oscillations of the binary eccentricity to $1-e\lesssim10^{-8}$. As a consequence, the wide binary members pass close to each other at periapsis, which, depending on the type of binary, potentially leads to a mass transfer or collision of stars or to an inspiral and subsequent merger of compact remnants due to gravitational-wave radiation. Based on a simulation of $10^5$ wide binaries across the Galactic field, we find that this mechanism could significantly contribute to the rate of stellar collisions and binary black hole mergers as inferred from observations of Luminous Red Novae and gravitational-wave events by LIGO/Virgo/Kagra. We conclude that the dynamics of wide binaries, despite their large mean separation, can give rise to extreme interactions between stars and compact remnants., Comment: 20 pages, 9 figures

We present new simulations investigating the impact of mass transfer on the asteroseismic signals of slowly pulsating B stars. We use MESA to simulate the evolution of a binary star system and GYRE to compute the asteroseismic properties of the accretor star. We show that, compared to a single star of the same final mass, a star that has undergone accretion (of non-enriched material) has a significantly different internal structure, evident in both the hydrogen abundance profile and Brunt-V\"ais\"al\"a frequency profile. These differences result in significant changes in the observed period spacing patterns, implying that one may use this as a diagnostic to test whether a star's core has been rejuvenated as a result of accretion. We show that it is essential to consider the full multimodal posterior distributions when fitting stellar properties of mass-gainers to avoid drawing misleading conclusions. Even with these considerations, stellar ages will be significantly underestimated when assuming single star evolution for a mass-gainer. We find that future detectors with improved uncertainties would rule out single star models with the correct mass and central hydrogen fraction. Our proof of principle analysis demonstrates the need to further investigate the impact of binary interactions on stellar asteroseismic signals for a wide range of parameters, such as initial mass, amount of mass transferred and the age of the accretor star at the onset of mass transfer., Comment: 10 pages (main text), 8 figures, submitted to A&A, comments welcome. Interactive plots available at https://www.tomwagg.com/html/interact/mass-gainer-asteroseismology.html

Circumbinary disks are found in a variety of astrophysical scenarios, spanning binary star formation to accreting supermassive black hole binaries. The interaction with a circumbinary disk can yield opposite effects on the binary orbit leading to circularization, or exciting the eccentricity, widening the orbit or shrinking it and facilitating mergers. We present a new formalism for the long-term evolution of the disk-binary interaction based on the results of recent suites of hydrodynamic simulations, which resolve the complex geometry of the gas in the vicinity of the binary and fully account for the gravitational and accretion forces. We release a python package, \texttt{spindler}, that implements our model. We show that, unless the mass reservoir feeding the disk is comparable to the mass of the binary, accretion onto the binary depletes the disk mass before inducing a significant change in orbital separation or mass ratio. This finding implies that, in most scenarios, interaction with a circumbinary disk is not an efficient mechanism to shrink the orbit of the binary. However, as long as the mass of the disk is at least a few percent of the mass of the binary, the interaction can excite the eccentricity up to an equilibrium value, and induce a statistical correlation between mass ratio and eccentricity. We consider the applicability of our model to a variety of astrophysical scenarios: during star formation, in evolved stellar binaries, triples and in supermassive black hole binaries. We discuss the theoretical and observational implications of our predictions., Comment: 19 pages, 12 figures, 5 tables. Accepted in A&A. Comments welcome. Spindler available as a Python package on Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10529060, and on github https://github.com/ruggero-valli/spindler. C-based version on https://github.com/ruggero-valli/spindler-c

The evolved stages of massive stars are poorly understood, but invaluable constraints can be derived from spatially resolved observations of nearby red supergiants, such as Betelgeuse. Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of Betelgeuse showing a dipolar velocity field have been interpreted as evidence for a projected rotation rate of about $5\, \mathrm{km\, s^{-1}}$. This is 2 orders of magnitude larger than predicted by single-star evolution, which led to suggestions that Betelgeuse is a binary merger. We propose instead that large-scale convective motions can mimic rotation, especially if they are only partially resolved. We support this claim with 3D CO5BOLD simulations of nonrotating red supergiants that we postprocessed to predict ALMA images and SiO spectra. We show that our synthetic radial velocity maps have a 90% chance of being falsely interpreted as evidence for a projected rotation rate of $\mathrm{2\, km\, s^{-1}}$ or larger for our fiducial simulation. We conclude that we need at least another ALMA observation to firmly establish whether Betelgeuse is indeed rapidly rotating. Such observations would also provide insight into the role of angular momentum and binary interaction in the late evolutionary stages. The data will further probe the structure and complex physical processes in the atmospheres of red supergiants, which are immediate progenitors of supernovae and are believed to be essential in the formation of gravitational-wave sources., Comment: 14 pages, 10 figures, 2 tables. Published in ApJL. Comments welcome. Animations accessible to general readers and supplementary materials can be found at Zenodo: doi: 10.5281/zenodo.10199936 . Postprocessing packages and Jupiter notebook to reproduce the figures will be available in the same link soon

Despite major progress in our understanding of massive stars, concerning discrepancies still remain between observations and theory. Most notable are the numerous stars observed beyond the theoretical main sequence, an evolutionary phase expected to be short-lived and hence sparsely populated. This is the "Blue Supergiant Problem." Stellar models with abnormal internal structures can provide long-lived solutions for this problem: core hydrogen-burning stars with oversized cores may explain the hotter ones, and core helium-burning stars with undersized cores may explain the cooler ones. Such stars may result from enhanced or suppressed mixing in single stars, or, more likely, as the products of binary interaction and stellar mergers. Here we investigate the potential of asteroseismology to uncover the nature of blue supergiants. We construct stellar models for the above scenarios and show that they predict $g$-mode period spacings that differ by an order of magnitude: $\sim$ 200~min versus $\sim$ 20~min for long-lived core H and He burning stars, respectively. For the classical scenario of H-shell-burning stars rapidly crossing the Hertzsprung gap, we furthermore predict changes of the order of $10^{-2}\,\mu\rm{Hz\,yr}^{-1}$ in high-frequency modes; this effect would be in principle observable from $\sim 5$~yr of asteroseismic monitoring if these modes can be identified. This raises the possibility of revealing the internal structure of blue supergiants, and thus determining whether these stars are indeed binary merger products. These asteroseismic diagnostics may be measurable through long time-series observations from the ongoing TESS mission and upcoming PLATO mission, thereby laying a path toward resolving the blue supergiant problem., Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Letters

The blue supergiant (BSG) problem, namely, the overabundance of BSGs inconsistent with classical stellar evolution theory, remains an open question in stellar astrophysics. Several theoretical explanations have been proposed, which may be tested by their predictions for the characteristic time variability. In this work, we analyze the light curves of a sample of 20 BSGs obtained from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) mission. We report a characteristic signal in the low-frequency ($f\lesssim2\;\mathrm{day}^{-1}$) range for all our targets. The amplitude spectrum has a peak frequency at $\sim0.2\;\mathrm{day}^{-1}$, and we are able to fit it by a modified Lorentzian profile. The signal itself shows strong stochasticity across different TESS sectors, suggesting its driving mechanism happens on short ($\lesssim\mathrm{months}$) timescales. Our signals resemble those obtained for a limited sample of hotter OB stars and yellow supergiants, suggesting their possible common origins. We discuss three possible physical explanations: stellar winds launched by rotation, convection motions that reach the stellar surface, and waves from the deep stellar interior. The peak frequency of the signal favors processes related to the convective zone caused by the iron opacity peak, and the shape of the spectra might be explained by the propagation of high-order, damped gravity waves excited from that zone. We discuss the uncertainties and limitations of all these scenarios., Comment: Accepted to ApJ

In the centers of dense star clusters, close encounters between stars and compact objects are likely to occur. We study tidal disruption events of main-sequence (MS) stars by stellar-mass black holes (termed $\mu$TDEs), which can shed light on the processes occurring in these clusters, including being an avenue in the mass growth of stellar-mass BHs. Using the moving-mesh hydrodynamics code \texttt{AREPO}, we perform a suite of hydrodynamics simulations of partial $\mu$TDEs of realistic, \texttt{MESA}-generated MS stars by varying the initial mass of the star ($0.5\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$ and $1\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$), the age of the star (zero-age, middle-age and terminal-age), the mass of the black hole ($10\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$ and $40\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$) and the impact parameter (yielding almost no mass loss to full disruption). We then examine the dependence of the masses, spins, and orbital parameters of the partially disrupted remnant on the initial encounter parameters. We find that the mass lost from a star decreases exponentially with increasing distance of approach and that a $1\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$ star loses lesser mass than a $0.5\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$. Moreover, a more evolved star is less susceptible to mass loss. Tidal torques at the closest approach spin up the remnant by factors of $10^2$--$10^4$ depending on the impact parameter. The remnant star can be bound (eccentric) or unbound (hyperbolic) to the black hole: hyperbolic orbits occur when the star's central density concentration is relatively low and the black hole-star mass ratio is high, which is the case for the disruption of a $0.5\,{\rm M}_{\rm \odot}$ star. Finally, we provide best-fit analytical formulae for a range of parameters that can be incorporated into cluster codes to model star-black hole interaction more accurately., Comment: Accepted for publication by A&A (with some revisions)

Observations suggest that massive stellar triples are common. However, their evolution is not yet fully understood. We investigate the evolution of hierarchical triples in which the stars of the inner binary experience chemically homogeneous evolution (CHE), particularly to understand the role of the tertiary star in the formation of gravitational-wave (GW) sources. We use the triple-star rapid population synthesis code TRES to determine the evolution of these systems at two representative metallicities: $Z = 0.005$ and $Z = 0.0005$. About half of all triples harbouring a CHE inner binary (CHE triples) experience tertiary mass transfer (TMT) episodes, an event which is rare for classically evolving stars. In the majority of TMT episodes, the inner binary consists of two main-sequence stars (58-60 per cent) or two black holes (BHs, 24-31 per cent). Additionally, we explore the role of von Zeipel-Lidov-Kozai (ZLK) oscillations for CHE triples. ZLK oscillations can result in eccentric stellar mergers or lead to the formation of eccentric compact binaries in systems with initial outer pericenters smaller than $\sim$ 1200 $R_{\odot}$. Approximately 24-30 per cent of CHE triples form GW sources, and in 31 per cent of these, the tertiary star plays a significant role and leads to configurations that are not predicted for isolated binaries. We conclude that the evolution of CHE binaries can be affected by a close tertiary companion, resulting in astronomical transients such as BH-BH binaries that merge via GW emission orders of magnitude faster than their isolated binary counterparts and tertiary-driven massive stellar mergers., Comment: 28 pages, 17 figures, 3 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Dynamical interactions involving binaries play a crucial role in the evolution of star clusters and galaxies. We continue our investigation of the hydrodynamics of three-body encounters, focusing on binary black hole (BBH) formation, stellar disruption, and electromagnetic (EM) emission in dynamical interactions between a BH-star binary and a stellar-mass BH, using the moving-mesh hydrodynamics code {\small AREPO}. This type of encounters can be divided into two classes depending on whether the final outcome includes BBHs. This outcome is primarily determined by which two objects meet at the first closest approach. BBHs are more likely to form when the star and the incoming BH encounter first with an impact parameter smaller than the binary's semimajor axis. In this case, the star is frequently disrupted. On the other hand, when the two BHs encounter first, frequent consequences are an orbit perturbation of the original binary or a binary member exchange. For the parameters chosen in this study, BBH formation, accompanied by stellar disruption, happens in roughly 1 out of 4 encounters. The close correlation between BBH formation and stellar disruption has possible implications for EM counterparts at the binary's merger. The BH that disrupts the star is promptly surrounded by an optically and geometrically thick disk with accretion rates exceeding the Eddington limit. If the debris disk cools fast enough to become long-lived, EM counterparts can be produced at the time of the BBH merger., Comment: 16 pages, 11 figures, 2 table. Accepted for publication in MNRAS, movie here: https://studio.youtube.com/playlist/PLxLK3qI02cQfXhvhRZp9gkvts_E46t0kH/videos

Spectroscopic observations of stars in young open clusters have revealed evidence for a dichotomous distribution of stellar rotational velocities, with 10-30% of stars rotating slowly and the remaining 70-90% rotating fairly rapidly. At the same time, high-precision multiband photometry of young star clusters shows a split main sequence band, which is again interpreted as due to a spin dichotomy. Recent papers suggest that extreme rotation is required to retrieve the photometric split. Our new grids of MESA models and the prevalent SYCLIST models show, however, that initial slow (0-35% of the linear Keplerian rotation velocities) and intermediate (50-65% of the Keplerian rotation velocities) rotation are adequate to explain the photometric split. These values are consistent with the recent spectroscopic measurements of cluster and field stars, and are likely to reflect the birth spin distributions of upper main-sequence stars. A fraction of the initially faster-rotating stars may be able to reach near-critical rotation at the end of their main-sequence evolution and produce Be stars in the turn-off region of young star clusters. However, we find that the presence of Be stars up to two magnitudes below the cluster turnoff advocates for a crucial role of binary interaction in creating Be stars. We argue that surface chemical composition measurements may help distinguish these two Be star formation channels. While only the most rapidly rotating, and therefore nitrogen-enriched, single stars can evolve into Be stars, slow pre-mass-transfer rotation and inefficient accretion allows for mild or no enrichment even in critically rotating accretion-induced Be stars. Our results shed new light on the origin of the spin distribution of young and evolved B-type main sequence stars., Comment: 18 pages, 14 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A

Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) are thought to be the result of thermonuclear explosions in white dwarfs (WDs). Commonly considered formation pathways include two merging WDs (the double degenerate channel), and a single WD accreting material from a H or He donor (the single degenerate channel). Since the predicted SNe Ia rates from WD in binaries are thought to be insufficient to explain the observed SNe Ia rate, it is important to study similar interactions in higher-order multiple star systems such as triple systems. We use the evolutionary population synthesis code Multiple Stellar Evolution (MSE) to study stellar evolution, binary interactions and gravitational dynamics of the triple-star systems. Also, unlike previous studies, prescriptions are included to simultaneously take into account the single and double degenerate channels, and we consider triples across the entire parameter space (including those with tight inner binaries). We explore the impact of typically ignored or uncertain physics such as fly-bys and CE prescription parameters on our results. The majority of systems undergo circular mergers to explode as SNe Ia, while eccentric collisions contribute to $0.4-4$ per cent of SNe Ia events. The time-integrated SNe Ia rate from the triple channel is found to be $(3.60 \pm 0.04) \times {10^{-4}}\,\mathrm{M_{\odot}}^{-1}$ which is, surprisingly, similar to that of the isolated binary channel where the SNe Ia rate is $(3.2 \pm 0.1) \times {10^{-4}}\,\mathrm{M_{\odot}}^{-1}$. This implies that triples, when considering their entire parameter space, yield an important contribution to the overall SNe Ia rate., Comment: accepted for Publication in APJ

Strong dynamical interactions among stars and compact objects are expected in a variety of astrophysical settings, such as star clusters and the disks of active galactic nuclei. Via a suite of 3D hydrodynamics simulations using the moving-mesh code AREPO, we investigate the formation of transient phenomena and their properties in close encounters between an $2M_{\odot}$ or $20M_{\odot}$ equal-mass circular binary star and single $20M_{\odot}$ black hole (BH). Stars can be disrupted by the BH during dynamical interactions, naturally producing electromagnetic transient phenomena. Encounters with impact parameters smaller than the semimajor axis of the initial binary frequently lead to a variety of transients whose electromagnetic signatures are qualitatively different from those of ordinary disruption events involving just two bodies. These include the simultaneous or successive disruptions of both stars and one full disruption of one star accompanied by successive partial disruptions of the other star. On the other hand, when the impact parameter is larger than the semimajor axis of the initial binary, the binary is either simply tidally perturbed or dissociated into bound and unbound single stars ("micro-Hills" mechanism). The dissociation of $20M_{\odot}$ binaries can produce a runaway star and an active BH moving away from one another. Also, the binary dissociation can either produce an interacting binary with the BH, or a non-interacting, hard binary; both could be candidates of BH high- and low-mass X-ray binaries. Hence our simulations especially confirm that strong encounters can lead to the formation of the (generally difficult to form) BH low-mass X-ray binaries., Comment: 13 pages, 8 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS. Movies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGz2WokfZLA&list=PLxLK3qI02cQeEc3ktlYAOLY4RHVX1V_nZ

Young star clusters enable us to study the effects of stellar rotation on an ensemble of stars of the same age and across a wide range in stellar mass and are therefore ideal targets for understanding the consequences of rotation on stellar evolution. We combine MUSE spectroscopy with HST photometry to measure the projected rotational velocities (Vsini) of 2,184 stars along the split main sequence and on the main sequence turn-off (MSTO) of the 100 Myr-old massive (10^5 M_sun) star cluster NGC 1850 in the Large Magellanic Cloud. At fixed magnitude, we observe a clear correlation between Vsini and colour, in the sense that fast rotators appear redder. The average Vsini values for stars on the blue and red branches of the split main sequence are ~100 km/s and ~200 km/s, respectively. The values correspond to about 25-30% and 50-60% of the critical rotation velocity and imply that rotation rates comparable to those observed in field stars of similar masses can explain the split main sequence. Our spectroscopic sample contains a rich population of ~200 fast rotating Be stars. The presence of shell features suggests that 23% of them are observed through their decretion disks, corresponding to a disk opening angle of 15 degrees. These shell stars can significantly alter the shape of the MSTO, hence care should be taken when interpreting this photometric feature. Overall, our findings impact our understanding of the evolution of young massive clusters and provide new observational constraints for testing stellar evolutionary models., Comment: Published in MNRAS; 16 pages, 11 figures; data available via https://cdsarc.cds.unistra.fr/viz-bin/cat/J/MNRAS/518/1505#/article

Low metallicity stars give rise to unique spectacular transients and are of immense interest for understanding stellar evolution. Their importance has only grown further with the recent detections of mergers of stellar mass black holes that likely originate mainly from low metallicity progenitor systems. Moreover, the formation of low metallicity stars is intricately linked to galaxy evolution, in particular to early enrichment and to later accretion and mixing of lower metallicity gas. Because low metallicity stars are difficult to observe directly, cosmological simulations are crucial for understanding their formation. Here we quantify the rates and locations of low metallicity star formation using the high-resolution TNG50 magnetohydrodynamical cosmological simulation, and we examine where low metallicity stars end up at $z=0$. We find that $20\%$ of stars with $Z_*<0.1\,\mathrm{Z_\odot}$ form after $z=2$, and that such stars are still forming in galaxies of all masses at $z=0$ today. Moreover, most low-metallicity stars at $z=0$ reside in massive galaxies. We analyse the radial distribution of low metallicity star formation, and discuss the curious case of seven galaxies in TNG50 that form stars from primordial gas even at $z=0$., Comment: 15 pages, 11 figures, accepted by MNRAS, comments welcome

The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) will be a transformative experiment for gravitational wave astronomy, and, as such, it will offer unique opportunities to address many key astrophysical questions in a completely novel way. The synergy with ground-based and space-born instruments in the electromagnetic domain, by enabling multi-messenger observations, will add further to the discovery potential of LISA. The next decade is crucial to prepare the astrophysical community for LISA's first observations. This review outlines the extensive landscape of astrophysical theory, numerical simulations, and astronomical observations that are instrumental for modeling and interpreting the upcoming LISA datastream. To this aim, the current knowledge in three main source classes for LISA is reviewed; ultracompact stellar-mass binaries, massive black hole binaries, and extreme or intermediate mass ratio inspirals. The relevant astrophysical processes and the established modeling techniques are summarized. Likewise, open issues and gaps in our understanding of these sources are highlighted, along with an indication of how LISA could help making progress in the different areas. New research avenues that LISA itself, or its joint exploitation with upcoming studies in the electromagnetic domain, will enable, are also illustrated. Improvements in modeling and analysis approaches, such as the combination of numerical simulations and modern data science techniques, are discussed. This review is intended to be a starting point for using LISA as a new discovery tool for understanding our Universe.

Recent high-quality Hubble Space Telescope (HST) photometry shows that the main sequences (MS) stars of young star clusters form two discrete components in the color-magnitude diagram (CMD). Based on their distribution in the CMD, we show that stars of the blue MS component can be understood as slow rotators originating from stellar mergers. We derive the masses of the blue MS stars, and find that they follow a nearly flat mass function, which supports their unusual formation path. Our results imply that the cluster stars gain their mass in two different ways, by disk accretion leading to rapid rotation, contributing to the red MS, or by binary merger leading to slow rotation and populating the blue MS. We also derive the approximate merger time of the individual stars of the blue MS component, and find a strong early peak in the merger rate, with a lower level merger activity prevailing for tens of Myr. This supports recent binary formation models, and explains new velocity dispersion measurements for members of young star clusters. Our findings shed new light on the origin of the bi-modal mass, spin, and magnetic field distributions of main-sequence stars., Comment: Published in Nature Astronomy online. Link to the paper:https://rdcu.be/cGLpH

Making the most of the rapidly increasing population of gravitational-wave detections of black hole (BH) and neutron star (NS) mergers requires comparing observations with population synthesis predictions. In this work we investigate the combined impact from the key uncertainties in population synthesis modelling of the isolated binary evolution channel: the physical processes in massive binary-star evolution and the star formation history as a function of metallicity, $Z$, and redshift $z, \mathcal{S}(Z,z)$. Considering these uncertainties we create 560 different publicly available model realizations and calculate the rate and distribution characteristics of detectable BHBH, BHNS, and NSNS mergers. We find that our stellar evolution and $\mathcal{S}(Z,z)$ variations can impact the predicted intrinsic and detectable merger rates by factors $10^2$-$10^4$. We find that BHBH rates are dominantly impacted by $\mathcal{S}(Z,z)$ variations, NSNS rates by stellar evolution variations and BHNS rates by both. We then consider the combined impact from all uncertainties considered in this work on the detectable mass distribution shapes (chirp mass, individual masses and mass ratio). We find that the BHNS mass distributions are predominantly impacted by massive binary-star evolution changes. For BHBH and NSNS we find that both uncertainties are important. We also find that the shape of the delay time and birth metallicity distributions are typically dominated by the choice of $\mathcal{S}(Z,z)$ for BHBH, BHNS and NSNS. We identify several examples of robust features in the mass distributions predicted by all 560 models, such that we expect more than 95% of BHBH detections to contain a BH $\gtrsim 8\,\rm{M}_{\odot}$ and have mass ratios $\lesssim 4$. Our work demonstrates that it is essential to consider a wide range of allowed models to study double compact object merger rates and properties., Comment: 25 pages of which 12 are (rainbow) figures. Main results: Fig 2, 4, 5 and 6. Code/results publicly available at https://github.com/FloorBroekgaarden/Double-Compact-Object-Mergers. Comments welcome

Future searches for gravitational waves from space will be sensitive to double compact objects (DCOs) in our Milky Way. We present new simulations of the populations of double black holes (BHBHs), black hole neutron stars (BHNSs) and double neutron stars (NSNSs) that will be detectable by the planned space-based gravitational wave detector LISA. For our estimates, we use an empirically-informed model of the metallicity dependent star formation history of the Milky Way. We populate it using an extensive suite of binary population-synthesis predictions for varying assumptions relating to mass transfer, common-envelope, supernova kicks, remnant masses and wind mass loss physics. For a 4(10)-year LISA mission, we predict between 30-370(50-550) detections over these variations, out of which 6-154(9-238) are BHBHs, 2-198(3-289) are BHNSs and 3-35(4-57) are NSNSs. We discuss how the variations in the physics assumptions alter the distribution of properties of the detectable systems, even when the detection rates are unchanged. In particular we discuss the observable characteristics such as the chirp mass, eccentricity and sky localisation and how the BHBH, BHNS and NSNS populations can be distinguished, both from each other and from the more numerous double white dwarf population. We further discuss the possibility of multi-messenger observations of pulsar populations with the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) and assess the benefits of extending the LISA mission., Comment: Submitted. All code for reproducing results and figures is available https://github.com/TomWagg/detecting-DCOs-in-LISA. Data is available https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4699712

We present LEGWORK (LISA Evolution and Gravitational Wave Orbit Kit), an open-source Python package for making predictions about stellar-origin gravitational wave sources and their detectability in LISA or other space-based gravitational wave detectors. LEGWORK can be used to evolve the orbits of sources due to gravitational wave emission, calculate gravitational wave strains (using post-Newtonian approximations), compute signal-to-noise ratios and visualise the results. It can be applied to a variety of potential sources, including binaries consisting of white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes. Although we focus on double compact objects, in principle LEGWORK can be used for any system with a user-specified orbital evolution, such as those affected by a third object or gas drag. We optimised the package to make it efficient for use in population studies which can contain tens-of-millions of sources. This paper describes the package and presents several potential use cases. We explain in detail the derivations of the expressions behind the package as well as identify and clarify some discrepancies currently present in the literature. We hope that LEGWORK will enable and accelerate future studies triggered by the rapidly growing interest in gravitational wave sources., Comment: Published in ApJS. 17 pages, 8 figures. Install by running "pip install legwork", for documentation see https://legwork.readthedocs.io, feedback welcome

Compact Object Mergers: Population Astrophysics and Statistics (COMPAS; https://compas.science) is a public rapid binary population synthesis code. COMPAS generates populations of isolated stellar binaries under a set of parametrized assumptions in order to allow comparisons against observational data sets, such as those coming from gravitational-wave observations of merging compact remnants. It includes a number of tools for population processing in addition to the core binary evolution components. COMPAS is publicly available via the github repository https://github.com/TeamCOMPAS/COMPAS/, and is designed to allow for flexible modifications as evolutionary models improve. This paper describes the methodology and implementation of COMPAS. It is a living document which will be updated as new features are added to COMPAS; the current document describes COMPAS v02.21.00., Comment: Code publicly available via https://compas.science . Minor updates to match version accepted to ApJS

As potential progenitors of several exotic phenomena including gravitational wave sources, magnetic stars, and Be stars, close massive binary systems probe a crucial area of the parameter space in massive star evolution. Despite the importance of these systems, large uncertainties regarding the nature and efficiency of the internal mixing mechanisms still exist. In this work, we aim to provide robust observational constraints on the internal mixing processes by spectroscopically analyzing a sample of three massive overcontact binaries at different metallicities. Using optical phase-resolved spectroscopic data, we perform an atmosphere analysis using more traditional 1D techniques and using state-of-the-art 3D techniques. We compare and contrast the assumptions and results of each technique and investigate how the assumptions affect the final derived atmospheric parameters. We find that in all three cases, both components of system are highly overluminous indicating either efficient internal mixing of helium or previous non-conservative mass transfer. However, we do not find strong evidence of helium or CNO surface abundance changes usually associated with mixing. Additionally, we find that in unequal mass systems, the measured effective temperature and luminosity of the less massive component places it very close to the more massive component on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. These results were obtained independently using both of the techniques mentioned above, which suggests that these measurements are robust. The observed discrepancies between the temperature and the surface abundance measurements when compared to theoretical expectations indicate that unaccounted for additional physical mechanisms may be at play., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A; 28 pages, 20 figures

Most massive stars experience binary interactions in their lifetimes that can alter both the surface and core structure of the stripped star with significant effects on their ultimate fate as core-collapse supernovae. However, core-collapse supernovae simulations to date have focused almost exclusively on the evolution of single stars. We present a systematic simulation study of single and binary-stripped stars with the same initial mass as candidates for core-collapse supernovae (11 - 21 M$_{\odot}$). Generally, we find that binary-stripped stars core tend to be less compact, with a more prominent, deeper silicon/oxygen interface, and explode preferentially to the corresponding single stars of the same initial mass. Such a dichotomy of behavior between these two modes of evolution would have important implications for supernovae statistics, including the final neutron star masses, explosion energies, and nucleosynthetic yields. Binary-stripped remnants are also well poised to populate the possible mass gap between the heaviest neutron stars and the lightest black holes. Our work presents an improvement along two fronts, as we self-consistently account for the pre-collapse stellar evolution and the subsequent explosion outcome. Even so, our results emphasize the need for more detailed stellar evolutionary models to capture the sensitive nature of explosion outcome., Comment: submitted to ApJ

Mergers of black hole-neutron star (BHNS) binaries have now been observed by GW detectors with the recent announcement of GW200105 and GW200115. Such observations not only provide confirmation that these systems exist, but will also give unique insights into the death of massive stars, the evolution of binary systems and their possible association with gamma-ray bursts, $r$-process enrichment and kilonovae. Here we perform binary population synthesis of isolated BHNS systems in order to present their merger rate and characteristics for ground-based GW observatories. We present the results for 420 different model permutations that explore key uncertainties in our assumptions about massive binary star evolution (e.g. mass transfer, common-envelope evolution, supernovae), and the metallicity-specific star formation rate density, and characterize their relative impacts on our predictions. We find intrinsic local BHNS merger rates spanning $\mathcal{R}_{\rm{m}}^0 \approx 4$-$830\,\rm{Gpc}^{-3}\,\rm{yr}^{-1}$ for our full range of assumptions. This encompasses the rate inferred from recent BHNS GW detections, and would yield detection rates of $\mathcal{R}_{\rm{det}} \approx 1$-$180\, \rm{yr}^{-1}$ for a GW network consisting of LIGO, Virgo and KAGRA at design sensitivity. We find that the binary evolution and metallicity-specific star formation rate density each impact the predicted merger rates by order $\mathcal{O}(10)$. We also present predictions for the GW detected BHNS merger properties and find that all 420 model variations predict that $\lesssim 5\%$ of the BHNS mergers have BH masses $\gtrsim 18\,M_{\odot}$, total masses $ \gtrsim 20\,M_{\odot}$, chirp masses $\gtrsim 5.5\,M_{\odot}$, mass ratios $ \gtrsim 12$ or $\lesssim 2$. Moreover, we find that massive NSs $\gtrsim 2\,M_{\odot}$ are expected to be commonly detected in BHNS mergers in almost all our model variations., Comment: 38 pages, 18 figures, accepted to MNRAS. The authors welcome suggestions and feedback. All data and code to reproduce the results in this paper are publicly available

The majority of close massive binary stars with initial periods of a few days experience a contact phase, in which both stars overflow their Roche lobes simultaneously. We perform the first dedicated study of the evolution of massive contact binaries and provide a comprehensive prediction of their observed properties. We compute 2790 detailed binary models for the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds each, assuming a conservative mass transfer. The initial parameter space for both grids span total masses from 20 to 80$\,\textrm{M}_{\odot}$, orbital periods of 0.6 to 2 days and mass ratios of 0.6 to 1.0. We find that models that remain in contact over nuclear timescales evolve towards equal masses, echoing the mass ratios of their observed counterparts. Ultimately, the fate of our nuclear-timescale models is to merge on the main sequence. Our predicted period-mass ratio distributions of O-type contact binaries are similar for both galaxies, and we expect 10 such systems together in both Magellanic Clouds. While we can largely reproduce the observed distribution, we over-estimate the population of equal-mass contact binaries. This situation is somewhat remedied if we also account for binaries that are approaching contact. Our theoretical distributions work particularly well for contact binaries with periods $<$2 days and total masses $\lessapprox45\,\textrm{M}_{\odot}$. We expect stellar winds, non-conservative mass transfer and envelope inflation to have played a role in the formation of the more massive and longer-period contact binaries., Comment: 23 pages, 11 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

A binary neutron star merger has been observed in a multi-messenger detection of gravitational wave (GW) and electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Binary neutron stars that merge within a Hubble time, as well as many other compact binaries, are expected to form via common envelope evolution. Yet five decades of research on common envelope evolution have not yet resulted in a satisfactory understanding of the multi-spatial multi-timescale evolution for the systems that lead to compact binaries. In this paper, we report on the first successful simulations of common envelope ejection leading to binary neutron star formation in 3D hydrodynamics. We simulate the dynamical inspiral phase of the interaction between a 12$M_\odot$ red supergiant and a 1.4$M_\odot$ neutron star for different initial separations and initial conditions. For all of our simulations, we find complete envelope ejection and final orbital separations of $a_{\rm f} \approx 1.3$-$5.1 R_\odot$ depending on the simulation and criterion, leading to binary neutron stars that can merge within a Hubble time. We find $\alpha_{\rm CE}$-equivalent efficiencies of $\approx 0.1$-$2.7$ depending on the simulation and criterion, but this may be specific for these extended progenitors. We fully resolve the core of the star to $\lesssim 0.005 R_\odot$ and our 3D hydrodynamics simulations are informed by an adjusted 1D analytic energy formalism and a 2D kinematics study in order to overcome the prohibitive computational cost of simulating these systems. The framework we develop in this paper can be used to simulate a wide variety of interactions between stars, from stellar mergers to common envelope episodes leading to GW sources., Comment: 28 pages, 16 figures. v2: ran some additional simulations to address comments from the community. Included new criterion for calculating a_f and alpha_CE, resulting in new range of values. Added Table 1, updated Fig 3, added Fig 4, updated Fig 12, updated Fig 13, added Fig 14, added Fig 15, added Fig 16. Now submitted to ApJ

The presence of massive stars (MSs) in the region close to the Galactic Center (GC) poses several questions about their origin. The harsh environment of the GC favors specific formation scenarios, each of which should imprint characteristic kinematic features on the MSs. We present a 2D kinematic analysis of MSs in a GC region surrounding Sgr A* based on high-precision proper motions obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope. Thanks to a careful data reduction, well-measured bright stars in our proper-motion catalogs have errors better than 0.5 mas yr$^{-1}$. We discuss the absolute motion of the MSs in the field and their motion relative to Sgr A*, the Arches and the Quintuplet. For the majority of the MSs, we rule out any distance further than 3-4 kpc from Sgr A* using only kinematic arguments. If their membership to the GC is confirmed, most of the isolated MSs are likely not associated with either the Arches or Quintuplet clusters or Sgr A*. Only a few MSs have proper motions suggesting they are likely members of the Arches cluster, in agreement with previous spectroscopic results. Line-of-sight radial velocities and distances are required to shed further light on the origin of most of these massive objects. We also present an analysis of other fast-moving objects in the GC region, finding no clear excess of high-velocity escaping stars. We make our astro-photometric catalogs publicly available., Comment: 28 pages, 33 figures, 9 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS. [v3: Fixed bibliography]

High-resolution numerical simulations including feedback and aimed at calculating the escape fraction (fesc) of hydrogen-ionizing photons often assume stellar radiation based on single-stellar population synthesis models. However, strong evidence suggests the binary fraction of massive stars is 70%. Moreover, simulations so far yield values of fesc falling only on the lower end of the roughly 10-20% range, the amount presumed necessary to reionize the Universe. Analyzing a high-resolution (4 pc) cosmological radiation hydrodynamic simulation we study how fesc changes when we include two different products of binary stellar evolution - stars stripped of their hydrogen envelopes and massive blue stragglers. Both produce significant amounts of ionizing photons 10-200 Myr after each starburst. We find the relative importance of these photons are amplified with respect to escaped ionizing photons, because peaks in star formation rates (SFRs) and fesc are often out of phase by this 10-200 Myr. Additionally, low mass, bursty galaxies emit Lyman continuum radiation primarily from binary products when SFRs are low. Observations of these galaxies by the James Webb Space Telescope could provide crucial information on the evolution of binary stars as a function of redshift. Overall, including stripped stars and massive blue stragglers increases our photon-weighted mean escape fraction by around 13% and 10%, respectively, resulting in a mean fesc of 17%. Our results emphasize that using updated stellar population synthesis models with binary stellar evolution provides a more sound physical basis for stellar reionization., Comment: 20 pages, 7 figures, submitted to ApJ

We report on the impact of a probabilistic prescription for compact remnant masses and kicks on massive binary population synthesis. We find that this prescription populates the putative mass gap between neutron stars and black holes with low-mass black holes. However, evolutionary effects reduce the number of X-ray binary candidates with low-mass black holes, consistent with the dearth of such systems in the observed sample. We further find that this prescription is consistent with the formation of heavier binary neutron stars such as GW190425, but over-predicts the masses of Galactic double neutron stars. The revised natal kicks, particularly increased ultra-stripped supernova kicks, do not directly explain the observed Galactic double neutron star orbital period--eccentricity distribution. Finally, this prescription allows for the formation of systems similar to the recently discovered extreme mass ratio binary GW190814, but only if we allow for the survival of binaries in which the common envelope is initiated by a donor crossing the Hertzsprung gap, contrary to our standard model., Comment: Updated version as accepted by MNRAS

We present a catalog of high-precision proper motions in the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC), based on Treasury Program observations with the Hubble Space Telescope's (HST) ACS/WFC camera. Our catalog contains 2,454 objects in the magnitude range of $14.2

In order to obtain a complete census of the stellar and sub-stellar population, down to a few M$_{Jup}$ in the $\sim1$ Myr old Orion Nebula Cluster, we used the infrared channel of the Wide Field Camera 3 of the Hubble Space Telescope with the F139M and F130N filters. These bandpasses correspond to the $1.4 \mu$m H$_2$O absorption feature and an adjacent line-free continuum region. Out of $4,504$ detected sources, $3,352$ (about $75\%$) appear fainter than m$_{130}=14$ (Vega mag) in the F130N filter, a brightness corresponding to the hydrogen-burning limit mass (M$\simeq 0.072 M_\odot$) at $\sim 1$ Myr. Of these, however, only $742$ sources have a negative F130M-139N color index, indicative of the presence of H$_2$O vapor in absorption, and can therefore be classified as bona-fide M and L dwarfs, with effective temperatures T$\lesssim 2850$ K at an assumed $1$ Myr cluster age. On our color-magnitude diagram, this population of sources with H$_2$O absorption appears clearly distinct from the larger background population of highly reddened stars and galaxies with positive F130M-F139N color index, and can be traced down to the sensitivity limit of our survey, m$_{130}\simeq 21.5$, corresponding to a $1$ Myr old $\simeq 3 $M$_{Jup}$, planetary mass object under about 2 magnitudes of visual extinction. Theoretical models of the BT-Settl family predicting substellar isochrones of $1, 2$ and $3$ Myr (down to $\sim 1 $M$_{Jup}$) fail to reproduce the observed H$_2$O color index at M$\lesssim 20 $M$_{Jup}$. We perform a Bayesian analysis to determine extinction, mass and effective temperature of each sub-stellar member of our sample, together with its membership probability., Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal. The resolution of several figures has been downgraded to comply with the size limit of arXiv submissions

During the first three observing runs of the Advanced gravitational-wave detector network, the LIGO/Virgo collaboration detected several black hole binary (BHBH) mergers. As the population of detected BHBH mergers grows, it will become possible to constrain different channels for their formation. Here we consider the chemically homogeneous evolution (CHE) channel in close binaries, by performing population synthesis simulations that combine realistic binary models with detailed cosmological calculations of the chemical and star-formation history of the Universe. This allows us to constrain population properties, as well as cosmological and aLIGO/aVirgo detection rates of BHBH mergers formed through this pathway. We predict a BHBH merger rate at redshift zero of $5.8 \, \textrm{Gpc}^{-3} \textrm{yr}^{-1}$ through the CHE channel, to be compared with aLIGO/aVirgo's measured rate of ${53.2}_{-28.2}^{+55.8} \, \text{Gpc}^{-3} \text{yr}^{-1}$, and find that eventual merger systems have BH masses in the range $17 - 43 \, \textrm{M}_{\odot}$ below the pair-instability supernova (PISN) gap, and $>124 \, \textrm{M}_{\odot}$ above the PISN gap. We investigate effects of momentum kicks during black hole formation, and calculate cosmological and magnitude limited PISN rates. We also study the effects of high-redshift deviations in the star formation rate. We find that momentum kicks tend to increase delay times of BHBH systems, and our magnitude limited PISN rate estimates indicate that current deep surveys should be able to detect such events. Lastly, we find that our cosmological merger rate estimates change by at most $\sim 8\%$ for mild deviations of the star formation rate in the early Universe, and by up to $\sim 40\%$ for extreme deviations., Comment: 20 pages, 18 figures, 4 tables. References added, text clarifications added, results and figures unchanged

The majority of massive stars, the progenitors of core-collapse supernovae (SNe), are found in close binary systems. Zapartas et al. (2019) modeled the fraction of hydrogen-rich, Type II SN progenitors which have their evolution affected by mass exchange with their companion, finding this to be between 1/3 and 1/2 for most assumptions. Here we study in more depth the impact of this binary history of Type II SN progenitors on their final pre-SN core mass distribution, using population synthesis simulations. We find that binary star progenitors of Type II SNe typically end their life with a larger core mass than they would have had if they had lived in isolation, because they gained mass or merged with a companion before explosion. The combination of the diverse binary evolutionary paths typically lead to a marginally shallower final core mass distribution. Discussing our results in the context of the red supergiant problem, i.e., the reported lack of detected high luminosity progenitors, we conclude that binary evolution does not seem to significantly affect the issue. This conclusion is quite robust against our variations in the assumptions of binary physics. We also predict that inferring the initial masses of Type II SN progenitors from "age-dating" its surrounding environment systematically yields lower masses compared to methods that probe the pre-SN core mass or luminosity. A robust discrepancy between the inferred initial masses of a SN progenitor from those different techniques could indicate an evolutionary history of binary mass accretion or merging., Comment: Published in Astronomy & Astrophysics, Volume 645

Only about 19 Galactic and 25 extra-galactic bona-fide Luminous Blue Variables (LBVs) are known to date. This incomplete census prevents our understanding of this crucial phase of massive star evolution which leads to the formation of heavy binary black holes via the classical channel. With large samples of LBVs one could better determine the duration and maximum stellar luminosity which characterize this phase. We search for candidate LBVs (cLBVs) in a new galaxy, NGC 7793. For this purpose, we combine high spatial resolution images from two Hubble Space Telescope (HST) programs with optical spectroscopy from the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE). By combining PSF-fitting photometry measured on F547M, F657N, and F814W images, with restrictions on point-like appearance (at HST resolution) and H{\alpha} luminosity, we find 100 potential cLBVs, 36 of which fall in the MUSE fields. Five of the latter 36 sources are promising cLBVs which have M(V) less than or equal to -7 and a combination of: H{\alpha} with a P-Cygni profile; no [O I] 6300 emission; weak or no [O III] 5007 emission; large [N II]/H{\alpha} relative to H II regions; and [S II] 6716 / [S II] 6731 similar to 1. It is not clear if these five cLBVs are isolated from O-type stars, which would favor the binary formation scenario of LBVs. Our study, which approximately covers one fourth of the optical disc of NGC 7793, demonstrates how by combining the above HST surveys with multi-object spectroscopy from 8-m class telescopes, one can efficiently find large samples of cLBVs in nearby galaxies.

Close double neutron stars have been observed as Galactic radio pulsars, while their mergers have been detected as gamma-ray bursts and gravitational-wave sources. They are believed to have experienced at least one common-envelope episode during their evolution prior to double neutron star formation. In the last decades there have been numerous efforts to understand the details of the common-envelope phase, but its computational modelling remains challenging. We present and discuss the properties of the donor and the binary at the onset of the Roche-lobe overflow leading to these common-envelope episodes as predicted by rapid binary population synthesis models. These properties can be used as initial conditions for detailed simulations of the common-envelope phase. There are three distinctive populations, classified by the evolutionary stage of the donor at the moment of the onset of the Roche-lobe overflow: giant donors with fully-convective envelopes, cool donors with partially-convective envelopes, and hot donors with radiative envelopes. We also estimate that, for standard assumptions, tides would not circularise a large fraction of these systems by the onset of Roche-lobe overflow. This makes the study and understanding of eccentric mass-transferring systems relevant for double neutron star populations., Comment: 26 pages, 10 figures. Includes bug fix. Two new figures and an appendix added

We present a detailed study of stellar rotation in the massive 1.5 Gyr old cluster NGC 1846 in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Similar to other clusters at this age, NGC 1846 shows an extended main sequence turn-off (eMSTO), and previous photometric studies have suggested it could be bimodal. In this study, we use MUSE integral-field spectroscopy to measure the projected rotational velocities (vsini) of around 1400 stars across the eMSTO and along the upper main sequence of NGC 1846. We measure vsini values up to ~250 km/s and find a clear relation between the vsini of a star and its location across the eMSTO. Closer inspection of the distribution of rotation rates reveals evidence for a bimodal distribution, with the fast rotators centred around vsini = 140 km/s and the slow rotators centred around vsini = 60 km/s. We further observe a lack of fast rotating stars along the photometric binary sequence of NGC 1846, confirming results from the field that suggest that tidal interactions in binary systems can spin down stars. However, we do not detect a significant difference in the binary fractions of the fast and slowly rotating sub-populations. Finally, we report on the serendipitous discovery of a planetary nebula associated with NGC 1846., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS, 15 pages, 10 figures

Hydrogen-rich supernovae, known as Type II (SNe II), are the most common class of explosions observed following the collapse of the core of massive stars. We use analytical estimates and population synthesis simulations to assess the fraction of SNe II progenitors that are expected to have exchanged mass with a companion prior to explosion. We estimate that 1/3 to 1/2 of SN II progenitors have a history of mass exchange with a binary companion before exploding. The dominant binary channels leading to SN II progenitors involve the merger of binary stars. Mergers are expected to produce a diversity of SN II progenitor characteristics, depending on the evolutionary timing and properties of the merger. Alternatively, SN II progenitors from interacting binaries may have accreted mass from their companion, and subsequently been ejected from the binary system after their companion exploded. We show that the overall fraction of SN II progenitors that are predicted to have experienced binary interaction is robust against the main physical uncertainties in our models. However, the relative importance of different binary evolutionary channels is affected by changing physical assumptions. We further discuss ways in which binarity might contribute to the observed diversity of SNe II by considering potential observational signatures arising from each binary channel. For supernovae which have a substantial H-rich envelope at explosion (i.e., excluding Type IIb SNe), a surviving non-compact companion would typically indicate that the supernova progenitor star was in a wide, non-interacting binary. We argue that a significant fraction of even Type II-P SNe are expected to have gained mass from a companion prior to explosion., Comment: The paper has been accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics

We investigate the impact of uncertainty in the metallicity-specific star formation rate over cosmic time on predictions of the rates and masses of double compact object mergers observable through gravitational waves. We find that this uncertainty can change the predicted detectable merger rate by more than an order of magnitude, comparable to contributions from uncertain physical assumptions regarding binary evolution, such as mass transfer efficiency or supernova kicks. We statistically compare the results produced by the COMPAS population synthesis suite against a catalog of gravitational-wave detections from the first two Advanced LIGO and Virgo observing runs. We find that the rate and chirp mass of observed binary black hole mergers can be well matched under our default evolutionary model with a star formation metallicity spread of $0.39$ dex around a mean metallicity $\left$ that scales with redshift $z$ as $\left=0.035 \times 10^{-0.23 z}$, assuming a star formation rate of $0.01 \times (1+z)^{2.77} / (1+((1+z)/2.9)^{4.7}) \, \rm{M}_\odot$ Mpc$^{-3}$ yr$^{-1}$. Intriguingly, this default model predicts that 80\% of the approximately one binary black hole merger per day that will be detectable at design sensitivity will have formed through isolated binary evolution with only dynamically stable mass transfer, i.e., without experiencing a common-envelope event., Comment: 22 pages, 17 figures. Data from the COMPAS simulation will be publicly available

The massive O4.5 V + O5.5 V binary VFTS 352 in the Tarantula nebula is one of the shortest-period and most massive overcontact binaries known. Recent theoretical studies indicate that some of these systems could ultimately lead to the formation of gravitational waves via black hole binary mergers through the chemically homogeneous evolution pathway. By analyzing ultraviolet-optical phase-resolved spectroscopic data, we aim to constrain atmospheric and wind properties that could be later used to confront theoretical predictions from binary evolution. In particular, surface abundances are powerful diagnostics of the evolutionary status, mass transfer and the internal mixing processes. From a set of 32 VLT/FLAMES visual and 8 HST/COS ultraviolet spectra, we used spectral disentangling to separate the primary and secondary components. Using a genetic algorithm wrapped around the NLTE model atmosphere and spectral synthesis code FASTWIND, we perform an 11-parameter optimization to derive the atmospheric and wind parameters of both components, including the surface abundances of He, C, N, O and Si. We find that both components are hotter than expected compared to single-star evolutionary models indicating that additional mixing processes may be at play. However the derived chemical abundances do not show significant indications of mixing when adopting baseline values typical for the system environment., Comment: 24 pages, 4 tables, 12 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ

Gravitational-wave observations of double compact object (DCO) mergers are providing new insights into the physics of massive stars and the evolution of binary systems. Making the most of expected near-future observations for understanding stellar physics will rely on comparisons with binary population synthesis models. However, the vast majority of simulated binaries never produce DCOs, which makes calculating such populations computationally inefficient. We present an importance sampling algorithm, STROOPWAFEL, that improves the computational efficiency of population studies of rare events, by focusing the simulation around regions of the initial parameter space found to produce outputs of interest. We implement the algorithm in the binary population synthesis code COMPAS, and compare the efficiency of our implementation to the standard method of Monte Carlo sampling from the birth probability distributions. STROOPWAFEL finds $\sim$25-200 times more DCO mergers than the standard sampling method with the same simulation size, and so speeds up simulations by up to two orders of magnitude. Finding more DCO mergers automatically maps the parameter space with far higher resolution than when using the traditional sampling. This increase in efficiency also leads to a decrease of a factor $\sim$3-10 in statistical sampling uncertainty for the predictions from the simulations. This is particularly notable for the distribution functions of observable quantities such as the black hole and neutron star chirp mass distribution, including in the tails of the distribution functions where predictions using standard sampling can be dominated by sampling noise., Comment: Accepted. Data and scripts to reproduce main results is publicly available. The code for the STROOPWAFEL algorithm will be made publicly available. Early inquiries can be addressed to the lead author

Interactions between massive stars in binaries are thought to be responsible for much of the observed diversity of supernovae. As surveys probe rarer populations of events, we should expect to see supernovae arising from increasingly uncommon progenitor channels. Here we examine a scenario in which massive stars merge after they have both formed a hydrogen-exhausted core. We suggest this could produce stars which explode as pair-instability supernovae (PISNe) with significantly more hydrogen, at a given metallicity, than in single-star models with the same pre-explosion oxygen-rich core mass. We investigate the subset of those stellar mergers which later produce pulsational PISNe, and estimate that the rate of such post-merger, hydrogen-rich pulsational PISNe could approach a few in a thousand of all core-collapse supernovae. The nature and predicted rate of such hydrogen-rich pulsational PISNe are reminiscent of the very unusual supernova iPTF14hls. For plausible assumptions, PISNe from similar mergers might dominate the rate of PISNe in the local Universe., Comment: 9 pages, 4 figures. Minor edits in text. Accepted for publication in ApJL

Double neutron stars (DNSs) have been observed as Galactic radio pulsars, and the recent discovery of gravitational waves from the DNS merger GW170817 adds to the known DNS population. We perform rapid population synthesis of massive binary stars and discuss model predictions, including formation rates, mass distributions, and delay time distributions. We vary assumptions and parameters of physical processes such as mass transfer stability criteria, supernova kick distributions, remnant mass distributions and common-envelope energetics. We compute the likelihood of observing the orbital period-eccentricity distribution of the Galactic DNS population under each of our population synthesis models, allowing us to quantitatively compare the models. We find that mass transfer from a stripped post-helium-burning secondary (case BB) onto a neutron star is most likely dynamically stable. We also find that a natal kick distribution composed of both low (Maxwellian $\sigma=30\rm~km~s^{-1}$) and high ($\sigma=265\rm~km~s^{-1}$) components is preferred over a single high-kick component. We find that the observed DNS mass distribution can place strong constraints on model assumptions., Comment: 23 pages, 10 main figures, 2 tables, 3 figures in appendices; typos added, references added; Formation rates corrected; Table 1 has an extra column

We present HST/WFC3 ultraviolet imaging in the F275W and F336W bands of the Type IIb SN 2001ig at an age of more than 14 years. A clear point source is detected at the site of the explosion having $m_{\rm F275W}=25.39 \pm 0.10$ and $m_{\rm F336W}=25.88 \pm 0.13$ mag. Despite weak constraints on both the distance to the host galaxy NGC 7424 and the line-of-sight reddening to the supernova, this source matches the characteristics of an early B-type main sequence star having $19,000 < T_{\rm eff} < 22,000$ K and $\log (L_{\rm bol}/L_{\odot})=3.92 \pm 0.14$. A BPASS v2.1 binary evolution model, with primary and secondary masses of 13 M$_{\odot}$ and 9 M$_{\odot}$ respectively, is found to resemble simultaneously in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram both the observed location of this surviving companion, and the primary star evolutionary endpoints for other Type IIb supernovae. This same model exhibits highly variable late-stage mass loss, as expected from the behavior of the radio light curves. A Gemini/GMOS optical spectrum at an age of 6 years reveals a narrow He II emission line, indicative of continuing interaction with a dense circumstellar medium at large radii from the progenitor. We review our findings on SN 2001ig in the context of binary evolution channels for stripped-envelope supernovae. Owing to the uncrowded nature of its environment in the ultraviolet, this study of SN 2001ig represents one of the cleanest detections to date of a surviving binary companion to a Type IIb supernova., Comment: 8 pages, 3 figures. Resubmitted to ApJ after minor changes requested by referee

Massive stars in binaries can give rise to extreme phenomena such as X-ray binaries and gravitational wave sources after one or both stars end their lives as core-collapse supernovae. Stars in close orbit around a stellar or compact companion are expected to explode as "stripped-envelope supernovae", showing no (Type Ib/c) or little (Type IIb) signs of hydrogen in the spectra, because hydrogen-rich progenitors are too large to fit. The physical processes responsible for the stripping process and the fate of the companion are still very poorly understood. Aiming to find new clues, we investigate Cas~A, which is a very young ($\sim$340 \,yr) and near ($\sim$3.4\,kpc) remnant of a core collapse supernova. Cas~A has been subject to several searches for possible companions, all unsuccessfully. We present new measurements of the proper motions and photometry of stars in the vicinity based on deep HST ACS/WFC and WFC3-IR data. We identify stellar sources that are close enough in projection, but using their proper motions we show that none are compatible with being at the location of center at the time of explosion, in agreement with earlier findings. Our photometric measurements allow us to place much deeper (order of magnitude) upper limits on the brightness of possible undetected companions. We systematically compare them with model predictions for a wide variety of scenarios. We can confidently rule out the presence of any stellar companion of any reasonable mass and age (main sequence, pre main sequence or stripped). Although this finding is not in direct conflict with model predictions, it does rule out what many considered to be the most likely evolutionary scenario for type IIb supernova. (abstract abbreviated), Comment: 13 pages, accepted by A&A