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There is little information available about the characteristics of patients admitted to geriatric units with high and low turnover rates of patients. It is often suggested that high turnover units do not admit the more physically disabled person. This study set out to investigate whether this view is true. Six geriatric units with different patient discharge rates were investigated. Those units with a high turnover of patients tend to admit more severely immobile people per bed, when compared to those units with below average throughput. Although these immobile people admitted to high turnover units suffered a higher mortality rate, a significantly greater proportion regained the ability to transfer themselves independently from bed to chair and to the toilet. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Mortality and behavioral alterations are monitored as the sensitive endpoints in toxicological studies and may be applied as useful biomarkers to assess piscicidal pollution in aquatic environment. Present study assesses acute toxicity of the piscicide, mahua oil cake (MOC), and its effect on the behavioral responses of the freshwater grapsid crab, Varuna litterata, under laboratory conditions. To determine the LC50 values, a 4-day acute static renewal toxicity test was done where 10 adult male crabs (mean length 2.870 ± 0.379 cm; mean weight 9.891 ± 3.951 g) were exposed to different concentrations (1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 ppt) of MOC aqueous extract with a control at different exposure periods. The LC50 values are 19.109 ppt for 24 h, 16.052 ppt for 48 h, 11.827 ppt for 72 h, and 7.631 ppt for 96 h. The high LC50 values indicate less sensitivity of this crab to the MOC extract than other aquatic animals. MOC extract has toxic effect on the mouthparts activity, whirling motion of water current producing activity, froth releasing activity, aggregation, balance and coordination actions, medium escaping behavior, locomotor activity, and fecal matter excretion of this crab in different exposure periods. Behavioral responses such as froth releasing activity, aggregation, and medium escaping behavior can be used as biomarkers of MOC pollution in aquatic environment.

Lipid synthesis is an important process in most organisms as well as in helminths. The present observation shows the variation of lipid and fatty acid uptake among cestode, Raillietina ( Fuhrmannetta ) echinobothrida ; nematode, Ascaridia galli and their host, Gallus domesticus , the common country fowl. Total lipid (TL), neutral lipid (NL), glycolipid (GL), phospholipid (PL) and their fatty acid of cestode, nematode and liver and intestinal fluid of the host were analyzed by thin layer chromatography and gas liquid chromatography respectively. The result shows that liver take more TL, PL and GL except NL. Utilization of lipid from intestinal fluid when compare between the parasites, it is found that TL and PL content of cestode are higher than nematode, whereas, nematode absorbs more NL and GL than cestode. The percent of cholesterol is more in cestode than nematode. Palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic are the predominant fatty acids among all the samples. The present study reveals that the cestode having large surface area is more opportunistic in the resource utilization over the nematode as well as the host., Competing Interests: None.

Macrochlamys indica is a hermaphrodite terrestrial pulmonate mollusk. Transmission electron microscope studies were done on the ovotestis of young and adult (older) M. indica which are elaborated in this paper. The ovotestis contains numerous lobes each of which contains many ovoid shaped acini which are occupied by stages of spermatogenesis and a single oocyte. In younger snails, the acini contain stages of developing spermatogenesis, whereas each acinus of older snails is composed of single large oocyte and few stags of spermatogenesis. The number of Sertoli cells is high in the acini of younger snails than in older snails. Details of the cellular organization of the Sertoli cell are described. Some long thin threads extend from the acinar boundary to acinar lumen. The anterior end of these threads is either free or directly connected to the developing cells of spermatogenesis. There are two types of cells in the interacinar space of the ovotestis in both younger and older snails. One cell is small oval interstitial cell and other is thin elongated periacinar cell. The acinar boundary contains secretory cells with deeply stained nucleus. In the acinus of older snails, the Sertoli cells do not form any barrier between oocyte and spermatogenic cells. Functions of the periacinar cell and interacinar cell are discussed. It is found that the spermatogenesis is highly active in younger snails with single dormant oocyte while process of oogenesis predominates in the older snails. The reproductive strategy of this pulmonate species thus depends on the individual's body size and their maturity.

Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) evansi is a causative agent of the dreadful mammalian disease trypanosomiasis or 'Surra' and carried as a latent parasite in domestic cattle but occasionally proves fatal when transmitted to horses and camel. Sporadic outbreak of 'Surra' to different animals (beside their natural hosts) reminds that T. evansi may be zoonotic, as their close relative cause sleeping sickness to human being. This haemoflagellate is mechanically transmitted by horse fly and its effect on different host varies depending on certain factors including the effectiveness of transmission by mechanical vector, the suitability and susceptibility of the host as well as most importantly the ability of the disease establishment of parasite to adapt itself to the host's resistance, etc. The course of the disease caused by T. evansi is similar to that of human sleeping sickness caused by T. (T.) brucei gambiense. The target organs and symptoms show close similarity. T. evansi can successfully be transmitted among unnatural hosts i.e., other classes of vertebrates, like chicken. In transmission experiments, the unnatural hosts may sometimes induce profound changes in the biology of trypanosomes. Hence, in present study the observations are the biology of different morphological changes of T. evansi as well as its ability of disease formation within some heterologous mammal viz., albino rat, guineapig, bandicoot, mongoose, domestic cat and common monkey. Blood smears of infected albino rats, bandicoot, and mongoose revealed only monomorphic form. Interestingly, blood smears of infected cat and monkey, T. evansi shows slender trypomastigote form and short intermediate form whereas organ smears shows other two forms of haemoflagellate viz., sphaeromastigote and amastigote form. The haemoflagellate maintains a common reproductive cycle in all the experimental heterologous hosts whereas disease symptoms differ. T. evansi infected cat and monkey shows nervous symptoms. Infected monkey expresses some symptoms similar to that of human sleeping sickness disease. Thus the paper highlights zoonotic potentialities of T. evansi.

The hypocretin/orexin (HCRT) system has been associated with both positive and negative drug reinforcement, implicating HCRT receptor 1 (HCRT-R1) signaling in drug-related behaviors for all major drug classes, including opioids. However, to date there are limited studies investigating the role of HCRT receptor 2 (HCRT-R2) signaling in compulsive-like drug seeking. Escalation of drug intake with extended access has been suggested to model the transition from controlled drug use to compulsive-like drug seeking/taking. The current study examined the effects of a HCRT-R2 antagonist, NBI-80713, on heroin self-administration in rats allowed short- (1 h; ShA) or long- (12 h; LgA) access to intravenous heroin self-administration. Results indicate that systemically administered NBI-80713 dose-dependently decreased heroin self-administration in LgA, but not in ShA, animals. Quantitative PCR analyses showed an increase in Hcrtr2 mRNA levels in the central amygdala, a stress-related brain region, of LgA rats. These observations suggest a functional role for HCRT-R2 signaling in compulsive-like heroin self-administration associated with extended access and indicate HCRT-R2 antagonism as a potential pharmacological target for the treatment of heroin dependence.

The present observation records the lipid classes and their fatty acid composition of the neutral lipid and phospholipid of the trematode Paramphistomum cervi and liver of its host Capra hircus, the common Indian goat. Thin Layer Chromatography and Gas Liquid Chromatography were used to identify different neutral lipid and phospholipid components. The results show that among the neutral lipid fractions, the amount of combined hydrocarbon, wax ester and steryl ester is more or less equal in parasite and its host, but the percent of triacylglycerol is more in host liver than the parasite and the percent of total sterol is more in parasite than that of its host liver. Among the phospholipid fractions, phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylethanolamine in the trematode parasite P. cervi and phosphatidylcholine and cardiolipin in the host's liver are the major components. The predominant fatty acids in the neutral lipid and phospholipid fractions of both the host liver and the trematode P. cervi include C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, and C18:2. The results reveal that the parasite P. cervi take up almost all the lipid and fatty acids from their host, which is required for their life cycle.

Genetic deletion of the neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1R) has been shown to decrease the reinforcing properties of opioids, but it is unknown whether pharmacological NK1R blockade has the same effect. Here, we examined the effect of L822429, a rat-specific NK1R antagonist, on the reinforcing properties of heroin in rats on short (1 h: ShA) or long (12 h: LgA) access to intravenous heroin self-administration. ShA produces heroin self-administration rates that are stable over time, whereas LgA leads to an escalation of heroin intake thought to model important dependence-related aspects of addiction. L822429 reduced heroin self-administration and the motivation to consume heroin, measured using a progressive-ratio schedule, in both ShA and LgA rats. L822429 also decreased anxiety-like behavior in both groups, measured on the elevated plus maze, but did not affect mechanical hypersensitivity observed in LgA rats. Expression of TacR1 (the gene encoding NK1R) was decreased in reward- and stress-related brain areas both in ShA and LgA rats compared with heroin-naïve rats, but did not differ between the two heroin-experienced groups. In contrast, passive exposure to heroin produced increases in TacR1 expression in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. Taken together, these results show that pharmacological NK1R blockade attenuates heroin reinforcement. The observation that animals with ShA and LgA to heroin were similarly affected by L822429 indicates that the SP/NK1R system is not specifically involved in neuroadaptations that underlie escalation resulting from LgA self-administration. Instead, the NK1R antagonist appears to attenuate acute, positively reinforcing properties of heroin and may be useful as an adjunct to relapse prevention in detoxified opioid-dependent subjects.

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies on both male and female tick, Amblyomma gervaisi (Lucas 1847) inhabiting the snake Naja naja were made. Detail of the surface structures as seen under SEM exhibit sexual dimorphism and were compared with other tick species as reported. SEM observations show characteristic alloscutal ornamentation, inornate festoons, triangular licking organ, size of the hypostome, round Haller's organ, genital plate oval in male and slit-like in female, and prominent marginated anal plate. The findings of the present study address the diversity in surface ultrastructure among snake ticks which would help in tick biosystematics.

Buprenorphine, a synthetic opioid that acts at both μ and κ opioid receptors, can decrease cocaine use in individuals with opioid addiction. However, the potent agonist action of buprenorphine at μ opioid receptors raises its potential for creating opioid dependence in non-opioid-dependent cocaine abusers. Here, we tested the hypothesis that a combination of buprenorphine and naltrexone (a potent μ opioid antagonist with weaker δ and κ antagonist properties) could block compulsive cocaine self-administration without producing opioid dependence. The effects of buprenorphine and various doses of naltrexone on cocaine self-administration were assessed in rats that self-administered cocaine under conditions of either short access (noncompulsive cocaine seeking) or extended access (compulsive cocaine seeking). Buprenorphine alone reproducibly decreased cocaine self-administration. Although this buprenorphine-alone effect was blocked in a dose-dependent manner by naltrexone in both the short-access and the extended-access groups, the combination of the lowest dose of naltrexone with buprenorphine blocked cocaine self-administration in the extended-access group but not in the short-access group. Rats given this low dose of naltrexone with buprenorphine did not exhibit the physical opioid withdrawal syndrome seen in rats treated with buprenorphine alone, and naltrexone at this dose did not block κ agonist-induced analgesia. The results suggest that the combination of buprenorphine and naltrexone at an appropriate dosage decreases compulsive cocaine self-administration with minimal liability to produce opioid dependence and may be useful as a treatment for cocaine addiction.

Alcoholism is characterized by a compulsion to seek and ingest alcohol, loss of control over intake, and the emergence of a negative emotional state during abstinence. We hypothesized that sustained activation of neuroendocrine stress systems (e.g., corticosteroid release via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) by alcohol intoxication and withdrawal and consequent alterations in glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activation drive compulsive alcohol drinking. Our results showed that rats exposed to alcohol vapor to the point of dependence displayed increased alcohol intake, compulsive drinking measured by progressive-ratio responding, and persistent alcohol consumption despite punishment, assessed by adding quinine to the alcohol solution, compared with control rats that were not exposed to alcohol vapor. No group differences were observed in the self-administration of saccharin-sweetened water. Acute alcohol withdrawal was accompanied by downregulated GR mRNA in various stress/reward-related brain regions [i.e., prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens (NAc), and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)], whereas protracted alcohol abstinence was accompanied by upregulated GR mRNA in the NAc core, ventral BNST, and central nucleus of the amygdala. No significant alterations in MR mRNA levels were found. Chronic GR antagonism with mifepristone (RU38486) prevented the escalation of alcohol intake and compulsive responding induced by chronic, intermittent alcohol vapor exposure. Chronic treatment with mifepristone also blocked escalated alcohol drinking and compulsive responding during protracted abstinence. Thus, the GR system appears to be involved in the development of alcohol dependence and may represent a potential pharmacological target for the treatment of alcoholism.

Animal models of drug dependence have described both reductions in brain reward processes and potentiation of stress-like (or anti-reward) mechanisms, including a recruitment of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling. Accordingly, chronic exposure to opiates often leads to the development of mechanical hypersensitivity. We measured paw withdrawal thresholds (PWTs) in male Wistar rats allowed limited (short access group: ShA) or extended (long access group: LgA) access to heroin or cocaine self-administration, or in rats made dependent on ethanol via ethanol vapor exposure (ethanol-dependent group). In heroin self-administering animals, after transition to LgA conditions, thresholds were reduced to around 50% of levels observed at baseline, and were also significantly lower than thresholds measured in animals remaining on the ShA schedule. In contrast, thresholds in animals self-administering cocaine under either ShA (1 h) or LgA (6 h) conditions were unaltered. Similar to heroin LgA rats, ethanol-dependent rats also developed mechanical hypersensitivity after eight weeks of ethanol vapor exposure compared to non-dependent animals. Systemic administration of the CRF1R antagonist MPZP significantly alleviated the hypersensitivity observed in rats dependent on heroin or ethanol. The emergence of mechanical hypersensitivity with heroin and ethanol dependence may thus represent one critical drug-associated negative emotional state driving dependence on these substances. These results also suggest a recruitment of CRF-regulated nociceptive pathways associated with escalation of intake and dependence. A greater understanding of relationships between chronic drug exposure and pain-related states may provide insight into mechanisms underlying the transition to drug addiction, as well as reveal new treatment opportunities. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder'., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Heroin addiction is a wide-reaching problem with a spectrum of damaging social consequences. Currently approved heroin addiction medications include drugs that bind at the same receptors (e.g. opioid receptors) occupied by heroin and/or its metabolites in the brain, but undesired side effects of these treatments, maintenance dependence and relapse to drug taking remains problematic. A vaccine capable of blocking heroin's effects could provide an economical, long-lasting and sustainable adjunct to heroin addiction therapy without the side effects associated with available treatment options. Heroin, however, presents a particularly challenging vaccine target as it is metabolized to multiple psychoactive molecules of differing lipophilicity, with differing abilities to cross the blood brain barrier. In this review, we discuss the opiate scaffolding and hapten design considerations to confer immunogenicity as well as the specificity of the immune response towards structurally similar opiates. In addition, we detail different strategies employed in the design of immunoconjugates for a vaccine-based therapy for heroin addiction treatment.

The present study records the occurrence of major lipid fractions and their fatty acids in a digenetic trematode parasite Paramphistomum cervi, and the rumen fluid and liver of the goat (Capra hircus). The amount of neutral lipids (NL), glycolipids (GL) and phospholipids (PL) of goat liver, rumen fluid and of the parasite shows that the rumen fluid is rich in NL, which is also in maximum quantity in the parasite, while the liver is rich in PL followed by NL. The number of fatty acids of total lipids (TL), NL and PL is greater in the parasite than those of the liver and rumen fluid. The number of fatty acids of GL is higher in the liver than in the parasite and the rumen fluid. Comparison of unsaturated fatty acid (UFA), C18 total and C18 UFA of TL, NL, GL and PL of the liver, rumen fluid and the parasite shows that the amount of C18 UFA is higher in P. cervi in all the lipid fractions, except for GL, than in the rumen fluid and the liver. The results reveal that P. cervi absorbs a greater number of fatty acids than its host.

Heroin addiction is a wide-reaching problem with a spectrum of damaging social consequences. A vaccine capable of blocking heroin's effects could provide a long-lasting and sustainable adjunct to heroin addiction therapy. Heroin, however, presents a particularly challenging immunotherapeutic target, as it is metabolized to multiple psychoactive molecules. To reconcile this dilemma, we examined the idea of a singular vaccine with the potential to display multiple drug-like antigens; thus two haptens were synthesized, one heroin-like and another morphine-like in chemical structure. A key feature in this approach is that immunopresentation with the heroin-like hapten is thought to be immunochemically dynamic such that multiple haptens are simultaneously presented to the immune system. We demonstrate the significance of this approach through the extremely rapid generation of robust polyclonal antibody titers with remarkable specificity. Importantly, both the antinociceptive effects of heroin and acquisition of heroin self-administration were blocked in rats vaccinated using the heroin-like hapten.

The prevalence of opioid abuse and dependence has been on the rise in just the past few years. Animal studies indicate that extended access to heroin produces escalation of intake over time, whereas stable intake is observed under limited-access conditions. Escalation of drug intake has been suggested to model the transition from controlled drug use to compulsive drug seeking and taking. Here, we directly compared the pattern of heroin intake in animals with varying periods of heroin access. Food intake was also monitored over the course of escalation. Rats were allowed to lever press on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule of reinforcement to receive intravenous infusions of heroin for 1, 6, 12, or 23h per day for 14 sessions. The results showed that heroin intake in the 12 and 23h groups markedly increased over time, whereas heroin intake in the 1h group was stable. The 6h group showed a significant but modest escalation of intake. Total heroin intake was similar in the 12 and 23h groups, but the rate of heroin self-administration was two-fold higher in the 12h group compared with the 23h group. Food intake decreased over sessions only in the 12h group. The 12 and 23h groups showed marked physical signs of naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. These findings suggest that 12h heroin access per day may be the optimal access time for producing escalation of heroin intake. The advantages of this model and the potential relevance for studying drug addiction are discussed., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The paper presents major lipid classes and their fatty acids investigated from Ascaridia galli, a nematode parasite of country fowl. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) reveals that the percent of total lipid, neutral lipid, phospholipids, and glycolipids are 1.94, 54.39, 26.95 and 18.66, respectively. Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) analysis shows that the saturated fatty acids are the major components in all the lipid fractions followed by monoenes and dienes. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were present in low amount. Stearic acids (C(18)) were the chief components among all the fatty acids in all the lipid fractions.

Thyroxine is known to play an important role during the developmental process of amphibians. The present work is designed on the hypothesis that a functional relationship exists between the thyroid gland and digestive physiology in the adult toad. Three doses of thyroxine (25 microg/100 g; 50 microg/100 g; 100 microg/100 microg body weight) were orally administered daily to the adult male toad, Bufo melanostictus and changes in -amylase, pepsin, trypsin, and esterase activities of the different zones of the digestive tract, pancreas and liver were observed. The observations were made on 7, 15, and 30 days of thyroxine treatment. The result shows that the dose of 25 microg increases the enzyme activities in the gastrointestinal tract, liver and pancreas of 7 days treatment. However, prolonged treatment with all the doses shows little effect on these enzymes. The pattern of changes in the enzymatic activities in the digestive tract of the adult male toads show more advanced compartmentalization than that of fishes. It is also found that site-specific enzyme production is not pronounced in this amphibious vertebrate. It is proposed that a positive functional relationship between thyroxine and digestive enzymes exists in the adult male toad.

Experimental infection of Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) evansi in Bandicota bengalensis produces an acute disease course leading to untimely death of the bandicoot rat. The sequential alteration of liver, spleen, lung, kidney, and heart was studied on the 5th, 8th, 12th, and 14th days postinoculation. The rats showed inflammatory, degenerative, and necrotic changes in these organs. In liver, pseudolobule formation, necrosis and hemorrhage within the sinusoids, and fatty degeneration of hepatic cells were the predominant histopathological changes. The changes were destructive and irreversible. In spleen giant cells aggregation and granulomatous lesion, i.e., accumulation of histiocytes, were the protective changes, whereas tissue and cell damage indicated irreversible degeneration. The gradual development of intrabronchus inflammation, aggregation of inflammatory cells around the alveoli, congestion of bronchioles, septal edema, atrophy of alveolar walls, migration of macrophages, and emphysema were the histopathological changes noticed in the lungs of the infected rats. The affected kidney showed infiltration of lymphocytes, hemorrhage in the interlobular space, and glomerulitis as the irreversible and destructive changes in the rats. There was degeneration of myocardium in the hearts of the rats. The histopathological changes in these organs are compared with those studied in surra, human sleeping sickness disease, and African trypanosomiasis. Possible mechanisms for these histological changes in the visceral organs are discussed., (Copyright 2001 Elsevier Science (USA).)

Permanent loss of mobility has profound physical and mental consequences for both sufferers and carers, and is a major challenge to the National Health Service. A recent study has shown that 42% of beds in departments of Geriatric Medicine are occupied by people with longstanding immobility. These people are highly dependent on nursing staff for their daily activities and quality of life. The assessment of mobility, as a single parameter of dependency, and the measurement of allocated nursing hours are both rapidly and easily performed on geriatric wards. It is felt that a simple correlation of these two variables might highlight areas where more detailed audit is desirable. This study demonstrates that the more immobile patients on a ward, the less the hours allocated to Registered and Learner grade nurses. Some possible reasons for this are suggested and the effects of this deployment on nursing practice and staff recruitment are discussed. It is felt that provision of appropriate nursing care to the most dependent patients in continuing care areas is essential, and that high levels of trained staff are needed to ensure this.

Many geriatric beds are occupied by bedfast patients. Most were immobile from the time of admission and many were admitted from other hospital departments or residential care. More are discharged home than remain in hospital or are transferred to any other institution. Although a small minority of admissions become long-term bedfast inpatients this group require a disproportionate resource commitment. Reduction in the number of bedfast inpatients is more likely to be effected by changes in unit policy than by improvement in clinical practice.

In 120 patients subjected to coronary artery surgery we have investigated employment status and work capability in relation to age, pre-operative ventricular function and extent of coronary artery disease, peri-operative infarction and post-operative angina. The patients were followed up for 6 to 23 months (mean 10 months). Fifty-three out of 74 patients (72%) employed before the onset of angina, returned to work after operation. Return to work was more likely in patients working immediately prior to surgery and in patients less than 45 years old (P less than 0.05). Sixty patients (50%) reported a return to normal work capability, the most striking changes occurring in those less than 45 years old (P less than 0.02). Pre-operative left ventricular (LV) function and extent of coronary disease and mode of employment did not correlate with post-operative employment status but normal LV function was related to improvement in work capability (P less than 0.02). Return to work after coronary bypass surgery is mainly due to angina relief but is also related to age and pre-operative work status.