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TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION I. THE DISTRIBUTION OF TRIAL ERROR AVERSIONS IN THE GENERAL PUBLIC A. Prior Survey Data on Trial Error Aversions B. New Survey Data on Americans' Trial [...], William Blackstone famously expressed the view that convicting the innocent constitutes a much more serious error than acquitting the guilty. This view is the cornerstone of due process protections for those accused of crimes, giving rise to the presumption of innocence and the high burden of proof required for criminal convictions. While most legal elites share Blackstone's view, the citizen jurors tasked with making due process protections a reality do not share the law's preference for false acquittals over false convictions. Across multiple national surveys sampling more than 12,000 people, we find that a majority of Americans consider false acquittals and false convictions to be errors of equal magnitude. Contrary to Blackstone, most people are unwilling to err on the side of letting the guilty go free to avoid convicting the innocent. Indeed, a sizeable minority view false acquittals as worse than false convictions; this group is willing to convict multiple innocent persons to avoid letting one guilty person go free. These value differences translate into behavioral differences: we show in multiple studies that jury-eligible adults who reject Blackstone's view are more accepting of prosecution evidence and are more conviction-prone than the minority of potential jurors who agree with Blackstone. These findings have important implications for our understanding of due process and criminal justice policy. Due process currently depends on jurors faithfully following instructions on the burden of proof, but many jurors are not inclined to hold the state to its high burden. Courts should do away with the fiction that the reasonable doubt standard guarantees due process and consider protections that do not depend on jurors honoring the law's preference for false acquittals, such as more stringent pretrial screening of criminal cases and stricter limits on prosecution evidence. Further, the fact that many people place crime control on par with, or above, the need to avoid wrongful convictions helps explain divisions in public opinion on important policy questions like bail and sentencing reform. Criminal justice proposals that emphasize deontic concerns without addressing consequentialist concerns are unlikely to garner widespread support.

The in vivo sensitivity limits and quantification performance of Cerenkov luminescence imaging have been studied using a tissue-like mouse phantom and 90Y. For a small, 9 mm deep target in the phantom, with no background activity present, the Cerenkov luminescence 90Y detection limit determined from contrast-to-noise ratios is 10 nCi for a 2 min exposure with a sensitive CCD camera and no filters. For quantitative performance, the values extracted from regions of interest on the images are linear within 5% of a straight line fit versus target activity for target activity of 70 nCi and above. The small branching ratio to decay with positron emission for 90Y also permits low-statistics PET imaging of the radionuclide. For PET imaging of the same phantom, with a small animal LSO detector-based scanner, the 90Y detection limit is approximately 3 orders of magnitude higher at 10 µCi.

Soil salinity is a global environmental challenge for crop production. Understanding the uptake and transport properties of salt in plants is crucial to evaluate their potential for growth in high salinity soils and as a basis for engineering varieties with increased salt tolerance. Positron emission tomography (PET), traditionally used in medical and animal imaging applications for assessing and quantifying the dynamic bio-distribution of molecular species, has the potential to provide useful measurements of salt transport dynamics in an intact plant. Here we report on the feasibility of studying the dynamic transport of 22Na in millet using PET. Twenty-four green foxtail (Setaria viridis L. Beauv.) plants, 12 of each of two different accessions, were incubated in a growth solution containing 22Na+ ions and imaged at 5 time points over a 2-week period using a high-resolution small animal PET scanner. The reconstructed PET images showed clear evidence of sodium transport throughout the whole plant over time. Quantitative region-of-interest analysis of the PET data confirmed a strong correlation between total 22Na activity in the plants and time. Our results showed consistent salt transport dynamics within plants of the same variety and important differences between the accessions. These differences were corroborated by independent measurement of Na+ content and expression of the NHX transcript, a gene implicated in sodium transport. Our results demonstrate that PET can be used to quantitatively evaluate the transport of sodium in plants over time and, potentially, to discern differing salt-tolerance properties between plant varieties. In this paper, we also address the practical radiation safety aspects of working with 22Na in the context of plant imaging and describe a robust pipeline for handling and incubating plants. We conclude that PET is a promising and practical candidate technology to complement more traditional salt analysis methods and provide insights into systems-level salt transport mechanisms in intact plants.

Thallium bromide (TlBr) is a semiconductor material and, simultaneously, a good Cerenkov radiator. The performance of a TlBr detector that integrates two different readouts, the charge induction readout and the detection of Cerenkov light, was evaluated. A TlBr detector with dimensions of 4  ×  4  ×  5 mm3, with a monolithic cathode and an anode segmented into strips, was manufactured. One of the bare and polished 4  ×  4 mm2 faces of the detector was coupled to a silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) to read out the Cerenkov light. Simultaneous timing and energy resolutions of

Heavy metals such as zinc are essential for plant growth, but toxic at high concentrations. Despite our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of heavy metal uptake by plants, experimentally addressing the real-time whole-plant dynamics of heavy metal uptake and partitioning has remained a challenge. To overcome this, we applied a high sensitivity gamma-ray imaging system to image uptake and transport of radioactive 65Zn in whole-plant assays of Arabidopsis thaliana and the Zn hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis halleri. We show that our system can be used to quantitatively image and measure uptake and root-to-shoot translocation dynamics of zinc in real time. In the metal hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis halleri, 65Zn uptake and transport from its growth media to the shoot occurs rapidly and on time scales similar to those reported in rice. In transgenic A. halleri plants in which expression of the zinc transporter gene HMA4 is suppressed by RNAi, 65Zn uptake is completely abolished.

The present study examined whether a defense rebuttal expert can effectively educate jurors on the risk that the prosecution's fingerprint expert made an error. Using a sample of 1716 jury-eligible adults, we examined the impact of three types of rebuttal testimony in a mock trial: (a) a methodological rebuttal explaining the general risk of error in the fingerprint-comparison process; (b) a new-evidence rebuttal concluding the latent fingerprint recovered in this case was not suitable for use in a comparison; and (c) a new-evidence rebuttal excluding the defendant as the source of the latent fingerprint. All three rebuttals significantly altered perceptions of the prosecution's fingerprint evidence, but new-evidence rebuttals proved most effective. The effectiveness of the rebuttals depended, however, on whether jurors were more concerned about false acquittals or false convictions.

Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is an optical technique for imaging radiolabeled molecules in vivo. It has demonstrated utility in both the clinical and preclinical settings and can serve as a substitute for nuclear imaging instrumentation in some cases. However, optical scattering fundamentally limits the resolution and depth of imaging that can be achieved with this modality. In this Letter, we report the numerical results that support the potential for ultrasound-modulated Cerenkov luminescence imaging (USCLI), a new imaging modality that can mitigate optical scattering. The technique uses an acoustic field to modulate the refractive index of the medium and, thus, the intensity of Cerenkov luminescence in a spatially precise manner. This mechanism of contrast has not been reported previously. For a physiologically compatible ultrasound peak pressure of 1 MPa, ∼0.1% of the Cerenkov signal can be modulated. Furthermore, our simulations show that USCLI can overcome the scattering limit of resolution for CLI and provide higher-resolution imaging. For an F18 point source centered in a 1  cm3 simulated tissue phantom with a scattering coefficient of μs'=10  cm-1,

Thallium bromide (TlBr) is a promising semiconductor detector material for positron emission tomography (PET) because it can offer very good energy resolution and 3D segmentation capabilities, and it also provides detection efficiency surpassing that of commonly used scintillators. Energy, timing, and spatial resolution were measured for thin (

The feasibility of using Cerenkov light, generated by energetic electrons following 511 keV photon interactions in the semiconductor TlBr, to obtain fast timing information for positron emission tomography (PET) was evaluated. Due to its high refractive index, TlBr is a relatively good Cerenkov radiator and with its wide bandgap, has good optical transparency across most of the visible spectrum. Coupling an SiPM photodetector to a slab of TlBr (TlBr-SiPM) yielded a coincidence timing resolution of 620 ps FWHM between the TlBr-SiPM detector and a LFS reference detector. This value improved to 430 ps FWHM by applying a high pulse amplitude cut based on the TlBr-SiPM and reference detector signal amplitudes. These results are the best ever achieved with a semiconductor PET detector and already approach the performance required for time-of-flight. As TlBr has higher stopping power and better energy resolution than the conventional scintillation detectors currently used in PET scanners, a hybrid TlBr-SiPM detector with fast timing capability becomes an interesting option for further development.

Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is a developing imaging modality that detects radiolabeled molecules via visible light emitted during the radioactive decay process. We used a Monte Carlo based computer simulation to quantitatively investigate CLI compared to direct detection of the ionizing radiation itself as an intraoperative imaging tool for assessment of brain tumor margins. Our brain tumor model consisted of a 1 mm spherical tumor remnant embedded up to 5 mm in depth below the surface of normal brain tissue. Tumor to background contrast ranging from 2:1 to 10:1 were considered. We quantified all decay signals (e±, gamma photon, Cerenkov photons) reaching the brain volume surface. CLI proved to be the most sensitive method for detecting the tumor volume in both imaging and non-imaging strategies as assessed by contrast-to-noise ratio and by receiver operating characteristic output of a channelized Hotelling observer.

PurposeThe MatrixSL-9-30035-OEM (Matrix9) from SensL is a large-area silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) photodetector module consisting of a 3 × 3 array of 4 × 4 element SiPM arrays (total of 144 SiPM pixels) and incorporates SensL's front-end electronics board and coincidence board. Each SiPM pixel measures 3.16 × 3.16 mm(2) and the total size of the detector head is 47.8 × 46.3 mm(2). Using 8 × 8 polished LSO/LYSO arrays (pitch 1.5 mm) the performance of this detector system (SiPM array and readout electronics) was evaluated with a view for its eventual use in small-animal positron emission tomography (PET).MethodsMeasurements of noise, signal, signal-to-noise ratio, energy resolution, flood histogram quality, timing resolution, and array trigger error were obtained at different bias voltages (28.0-32.5 V in 0.5 V intervals) and at different temperatures (5 °C-25 °C in 5 °C degree steps) to find the optimal operating conditions.ResultsThe best measured signal-to-noise ratio and flood histogram quality for 511 keV gamma photons were obtained at a bias voltage of 30.0 V and a temperature of 5 °C. The energy resolution and timing resolution under these conditions were 14.2% ± 0.1% and 4.2 ± 0.1 ns, respectively. The flood histograms show that all the crystals in the 1.5 mm pitch LSO array can be clearly identified and that smaller crystal pitches can also be resolved. Flood histogram quality was also calculated using different center of gravity based positioning algorithms. Improved and more robust results were achieved using the local 9 pixels for positioning along with an energy offset calibration. To evaluate the front-end detector readout, and multiplexing efficiency, an array trigger error metric is introduced and measured at different lower energy thresholds. Using a lower energy threshold greater than 150 keV effectively eliminates any mispositioning between SiPM arrays.ConclusionsIn summary, the Matrix9 detector system can resolve high-resolution scintillator arrays common in small-animal PET with adequate energy resolution and timing resolution over a large detector area. The modular design of the Matrix9 detector allows it to be used as a building block for simple, low channel-count, yet high performance, small animal PET or PET/MRI systems.

In preclinical single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) system development the primary objective has been to improve spatial resolution by using novel parallel-hole or multi-pinhole collimator geometries. However, such high-resolution systems have relatively poor sensitivity (typically 0.01-0.1%). In contrast, a system that does not use collimators can achieve very high-sensitivity. Here we present a high-sensitivity un-collimated detector single-photon imaging (UCD-SPI) system for the imaging of both small animals and plants. This scanner consists of two thin, closely spaced, pixelated scintillator detectors that use NaI(Tl), CsI(Na), or BGO. The performance of the system has been characterized by measuring sensitivity, spatial resolution, linearity, detection limits, and uniformity. With (99m)Tc (140 keV) at the center of the field of view (20 mm scintillator separation), the sensitivity was measured to be 31.8% using the NaI(Tl) detectors and 40.2% with CsI(Na). The best spatial resolution (FWHM when the image formed as the geometric mean of the two detector heads, 20 mm scintillator separation) was 19.0 mm for NaI(Tl) and 11.9 mm for CsI(Na) at 140 keV, and 19.5 mm for BGO at 1116 keV, which is somewhat degraded compared to the cm-scale resolution obtained with only one detector head and a close source. The quantitative accuracy of the system's linearity is better than 2% with detection down to activity levels of 100 nCi. Two in vivo animal studies (a renal scan using (99m)Tc MAG-3 and a thyroid scan with (123)I) and one plant study (a (99m)TcO4(-) xylem transport study) highlight the unique capabilities of this UCD-SPI system. From the renal scan, we observe approximately a one thousand-fold increase in sensitivity compared to the Siemens Inveon SPECT/CT scanner. UCD-SPI is useful for many imaging tasks that do not require excellent spatial resolution, such as high-throughput screening applications, simple radiotracer uptake studies in tumor xenografts, dynamic studies where very good temporal resolution is critical, or in planta imaging of radioisotopes at low concentrations.

Peyronies disease is a localized connective tissue disease characterized by an active, inflammatory phase and a stable, quiescent phase, with the eventual development of collagenous plaques within the tunica albuginea of the penis. Risk factors primarily associated with Peyronies disease include Dupuytrens contracture, penile trauma, and family history. A variety of treatment strategies have been utilized, including oral and topical agents, electromotive drug administration, intralesional injections, extracorporeal shockwave therapy, penile traction, and surgery. However, most of these strategies are ineffective, with surgery being the only definitive treatment. Collagenase clostridium histolyticum is a newly US Food and Drug Administration-approved agent for intralesional injection. It is thought to downregulate many of the disease-related genes, cytokines, and growth factors and degrade collagen fibers. It also suppresses cell attachment, spreading, and proliferation. Collagenase clostridium histolyticum has been clinically proven to be a safe and effective therapeutic option, demonstrating decreases in penile curvature and plaque consistency, as well as increases in patient satisfaction. During clinical evaluation, the Peyronies Disease Questionnaire was validated as an effective tool for assessing treatment outcomes.

This study sought to explore the experiences of counsellors at Nelson Mandela University's Emthonjeni Student Wellness counselling unit regarding the implementation of a blended counselling model which integrated virtual interventions into the existing practice model. Grounded theory methodology was employed to generate an understanding of the evolving counselling practices and the growing acceptance of a blended model in a student counselling centre at a South African public university. The establishment of the new model entailed the integration of psychological knowledge and experience with other domains of knowledge, such as information technology; professional ethics; and student support. The data for this article were collected through semi-structured interviews with counsellors working at the university's counselling unit. The theoretical framework emerging from this study sheds light on the evolution of counselling practices within the university context and how students' mental health and wellness can be supported using virtual interventions. The study identified five main themes to be addressed in the establishment of a blended counselling model: the transition to integration; challenges and obstacles; benefits and advantages; diversity and uniqueness; and training issues for counsellors. It was found that key concepts that can form the basis of a blended counselling model and the training and development of counsellors required to establish such a model, include adaptation and flexibility, technological proficiency, cultural sensitivity and diversity, and boundary management. Each of these key concepts relates to areas for skill development in counsellors. In addition, it was found that an integrative, evidence- and scholarship-based approach to analysing these concepts would produce significant benefits for student counselling services at South African public universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I. INTRODUCTION Libertarian paternalism gave birth to the nudge. (1) Under the philosophy of libertarian paternalism, a person in power seeks to create policies that steer people toward outcomes that [...], We can properly call a number of nudges libertarian nudges, but the territory of libertarian nudging is smaller than is often realized. The domain of libertarian nudges is populated by choice-independent nudges, or nudges that only assist the decision process and do not push choosers toward any particular choice. Some choice-dependent nudges pose no great concern from a libertarian perspective for rational choosers so long as there is a low-cost way to avoid the nudger's favored choice. However, choice-dependent nudges will interfere with the autonomy of irrational choosers, because the opt-out option will be meaningless for this group. Choice-independent nudges should be of no concern with respect to irrational actors and in fact should be welcomed because they can promote the decision competence fundamental to libertarianis, but choice-dependent nudges can never truly be libertarian nudges.