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Taenia solium porcine cysticercosis (PCC) is widespread in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where free-range pig rearing is common and hygienic standards are subpar. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 42 villages between June and September 2019 (14 in Songwe district, southwest Tanzania, and 28 in Kongwa district, central Tanzania). Using a commercial Ag-ELISA kit (apDia, Belgium), circulating antigens of Taenia spp in pig serum were identified and used to calculate the PCC seroprevalence. The study recruited 692 randomly selected households, sampling one pig per household. The relationship between each risk factor and the seroprevalence of PCC at the household and village levels was analysed using mixed logistic regression models. The findings showed that approximately 28% of the pigs were reared in free-range settings, the proportion of households with latrines across the districts was 92%. Twenty-seven percent of households with latrines had water and soap available for hand washing. Sixty-seven (9.7%) tested positive for PCC based on Ag-ELISA. The overall seroprevalence in Kongwa and Songwe districts was 7.3% and 14.0% respectively. In addition, the overall village Ag-ELISA positivity was 9.3%, with an interquartile range (IQR) of 4.6% - 14.1%. Increasing the age of the pig (OR = 3.13 95% CI = 1.48 - 6.60; p  = 0.003), pig originating from outside the household (OR = 0.5 95% CI = 0.25 - 0.99; p  = 0.05), and pigs kept in a household that practised deworming (OR = 2.23 95% CI = 1.08 - 4.61; p  = 0.03) were important risk factors associated with PCC positivity. Therefore, the high seroprevalence of PCC, up to 14%, calls for rapid and effective control actions such as vaccination and treatment of pigs against PCC, and public health education emphasises on indoor pig rearing, hygienic practices and regular use of latrines. Our findings also point to a potential danger of Taenia. spp infection indicating the possibility of people carrying the adult parasite Taenia solium not only in the rural communities of Kongwa and Songwe districts but also in the urban areas of Tanzania, where pigs from these areas are transported for consumption. To develop effective management measures, further research on taeniasis and cysticercosis in the human population is required., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Introduction: Brucellosis is a serious community health problem and endemic disease in Tanzania in both humans and animals. Frontline health workers (FHWs) play a vital role in reporting and hence prevent and control brucellosis in rural settings. This study aims to evaluate the effect of awareness training to frontline health workers and use of electronic technology (e- technology) on reporting of brucellosis cases., Methods: A quasi-experimental design was implemented in two pastoral communities in eastern part of Tanzania with one as control and another as treatment involving 64 FHWs who were purposively selected from May 2020 to December 2020. A total of 32 FHWs from treatment pastoral community were purposively selected for awareness training, rapid diagnosis using Rose Bengal test (RBT) and use of electronic technology (AfyaData app) for brucellosis reporting while nothing was done in control community. Before and after training information about their knowledge, attitude and practices were collected from all participants using a structured questionnaires uploaded in the mobile phone powered by AfyaData application. Blood samples were collected from 141 febrile patients attending the selected facilities in treatment community. Serum obtained from collected blood were analyzed using RBT and Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA) for brucellosis screening and confirmatory, respectively. Results from this analysis were reported back to the health facility using AfyaData app. Chi-square was used to analyze categorical variables and t-test and/Anova test was used to assess the effectiveness of the intervention., Results: Results revealed that before the training majority of the participants were ignorant about brucellosis, although they had good attitude towards brucellosis prevention. Participant's awareness, practice and attitude increased significantly (p = 0.003, p = 0.001, p = 0.032) respectively, after the intervention. Total of 17(12.1%) patients were positive on RBT and four (2.8%) were confirmed by c-ELISA. AfyaData app was proven to provide quick reports regarding brucellosis in the study area., Conclusion: The training program was effective in increasing the level of knowledge and practice about brucellosis. Electronic based technology (AfyaData app) improved the reporting of brucellosis cases. There is a need for the use of electronic based technology to improve timely management of brucellosis in pastoral communities. Also, continuous training on FHWs regarding the disease is needed to improved their awareness and practices., (© 2023. BioMed Central Ltd.)

Taenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis (TSTC) is a parasitic zoonotic disease that is endemic in several developing countries, causing serious public health and economic impacts. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) related to porcine cysticercosis (PCC) transmission, prevention and control among smallholder pig farmers in Kongwa and Songwe Districts in Tanzania. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 692 smallholder pig farmers from randomly selected households. STATA software version 17 was used to analyse quantitative data, summarize farmers' KAP about PCC and calculate performance scores. Nearly half (42%) of the respondents had little knowledge regarding PCC, only 17% of the respondents had good practices towards prevention/control of PCC and 72% had a positive attitude towards PCC- prevention/control measures. The majority (73%) of smallholder pig farmers admitted deworming their pigs regularly, whereas 76% reported deworming themselves and their family members regularly. Albendazole and ivermectin are the most commonly used medications for deworming people and pigs, respectively. According to the findings, the majority of smallholder pig farmers in Kongwa and Songwe Districts showed a good attitude towards PCC prevention/control measures but had limited knowledge of the PCC life cycle and control. In addition, only one in five farmers was engaged in good practices. The findings revealed further that farmers are engaged in risky behaviours that aid the spread and perpetuation of the T. solium parasite in the study area. It is recommended that farmers should be given proper health education on the T. solium transmission cycle and preventive/control practices to limit PCC transmission., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest There was no mention of a conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background and Aim: Pig farming is a livelihood activity undertaken by many rural communities in Tanzania. However, pigs in rural communities become infected with Taenia solium , a zoonotic parasite leading to porcine cysticercosis (PCC). Thus, routine meat inspection is fundamental in ensuring that the meat consumed is PCC-free. However, routine meat inspection is constrained by low sensitivity as a diagnostic test. Regardless of its low sensitivity, at the local level, no substitute tool would potentially lead to meat being risk-free for human infection. This study aimed at quantifying the risk of humans getting exposed to T. solium taeniasis through the consumption of pork approved safe for human consumption by employing a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) model., Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study employing a quantitative risk assessment technique was conducted to quantify the risk of human infection in Mpwapwa District through exposure to T. solium infection through consumption of officially inspected pork. The input parameters in this study were simulated in @risk software to obtain the risk of exposure and the risk factors for exposure to T. solium taeniasis., Results: The risk of one getting exposed to T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis (TSTC) through consumption of pork approved for human consumption was found to be 0.018 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.00-0.0250). Likewise, the probability that a cyst is localized in a pork portion was found to be the most influencing input risk factor of getting exposed to TSTC. Furthermore, the probability of developing T. solium taeniasis was estimated to be 0.73605 (95% CI = 0-0.950) when infected undercooked pork portion is consumed and 0.99652 (95% CI = 0.98161-0.99908) from consuming raw pork portion. Likewise, about 47 (95% CI = 42-52) people who consumed undercooked pork and 26 (95% CI = 22-30) who consumed raw pork would get infected in Mpwapwa District per year., Conclusion: The results from this study are anticipated to create public awareness of the problem and promote the use of one-health approach in the control and prevention of the consumption of infected pork., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Mulilo, et al.)

Background: Taenia solium cysticercosis/taeniasis (TSCT) is reported to be endemic in pig producing areas around the world, causing significant disease burden and economic losses., Methods: This cross-sectional study aimed at assessing Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) regarding TSCT in four districts, namely Mbulu, Mpwapwa, Mbinga, and Rungwe in Tanzania. Data on KAP were collected through questionnaire-based interviews and household infrastructure observations., Results: Knowledge about porcine cysticercosis was good, particularly among pig keepers across the districts. Many participants had heard about the pork tapeworm (T. solium taeniasis), and the knowledge about signs/symptoms and treatment was fair, but the means of transmission and prevention measures were often unknown. Whilst most participants were familiar with epilepsy, no one knew anything about human cysticercosis and the link between cysticercosis and epileptic seizures. A similar trend is reflected through the attitudes toward the low risk perception of cysticercosis infection. Not surprisingly, the risk perception of the infection with the pork tapeworm was low too. Many participants reported not washing their hands before eating or after using the toilet which highlights potential risks for the development of human cysticercosis. Albeit nearly every participant reported using the toilet always, household observations revealed that toilets were either lacking or had no complete walls. Generally, household observations revealed a discrepancy between questionnaire answers on the one hand and the availability of toilet and handwashing facilities and the confinement of pigs on the other hand., Conclusion: This study demonstrates knowledge gaps and adverse practices which may hinder and/or slow down the control/elimination of T. solium in endemic countries. The study results are also useful for appropriate designing of TSCT health interventions that need to be planned carefully, taking into account the local context and designing TSCT in partnership with the local communities from the beginning to the end applying a One Health approach to allow the possible sustained and best impacts., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Brucellosis an important zoonotic disease worldwide, which frequently presents as an undifferentiated febrile illness with otherwise varied and non-specific clinical manifestations. Despite its importance, there are few reports on its awareness among frontline health workers. This study aimed at assessing the baseline knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) related to detection and management of brucellosis among frontline health workers (FHWs) namely; healthcare workers (HWs) and community health workers (CHWs)., Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from December 2019 to January 2020 in Kilosa and Chalinze districts of Tanzania. Data on demographic characteristics, knowledge, attitude and practices regarding brucellosis were collected from the study participants using a structured questionnaire. Interviews were conducted with 32 HWs and 32 CHWs who were systematically selected in study districts. Chi square/fisher Exact was used to assess the association between sociodemographic variables and those related to knowledge, attitude and practices., Results: Overall, a total of 30 (93.8%) HWs and nine (28.1%) CHWs from the study districts heard about brucellosis, with (34.4%) of HWs having knowledge about the causative organism. Overall, knowledge showed almost half (46.9%) HWs and (28.1%) CHWs were aware of the symptoms, clinical signs, diagnosis and control regarding brucellosis. Knowledge difference was statistically significant with HWs' age (p = 0.016). Almost half (46.9%) HWs and less than quarter (12.5%) CHWs had good practices regarding brucellosis control. Almost three quarters (71.9%) of HWs and (21.9%) CHWs had positive attitude regarding brucellosis control; overall attitude was statistically significant with CHWs age (p = 0.028) and education level (p = 0.024). Lack of awareness and unavailability of diagnostic tools were the main challenges faced by FHWs in the two districts., Conclusion: The majority of participants were not aware of human brucellosis. Moreover, their overall knowledge was inadequate and the common practices were diagnostic tools, and adequate knowledge to manage brucellosis cases. These findings highlight the need to strengthen frontline health workers knowledge, practices and diagnostic capacities related to brucellosis., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: Taenia solium is a zoonotic parasite responsible for neurocysticercosis-a major cause of late-onset acquired epilepsy in humans. Lack of affordable, specific and sensitive diagnostic tools hampers control of the parasite. This study assessed the performance of an antigen detection enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) in the diagnosis of viable T. solium cysticercosis in naturally infected slaughter-age pigs in an endemic area in Tanzania., Methods: A total of 350 pigs were bled before they were slaughtered and their carcases examined. Serum was analyzed for circulating antigens by using a monoclonal antibody-based B158/B60 Ag-ELISA. Each carcase was examined for the presence of Taenia hydatigena cysticerci and half carcase musculature together with the whole brain, head muscles, tongue, heart and diaphragm were sliced with fine cuts (< 0.5 cm) to reveal and enumerate T. solium cysticerci. Half carcase dissection can detect at least 84% of infected pigs. Prevalence and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated in Stata 12. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values and likelihood ratios were determined., Results: Twenty-nine pigs (8.3%, 95% CI: 5.6-11.7%) had viable T. solium cysticerci while 11 pigs had T. hydatigena cysticerci (3.1%, 95% CI: 1.6-5.5%). No co-infection was observed. Sixty-eight pigs (19.4%, 95% CI: 15.4-20%) tested positive on Ag-ELISA; of these, 24 had T. solium cysticerci and 7 had T. hydatigena cysticerci. Sensitivity and specificity were determined to be 82.7% and 86.3%, respectively. Positive and negative predictive values were 35.2% and 98.2%, respectively. Likelihood ratios for positive and negative Ag-ELISA test results were 6.0 and 0.2, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation between the titre of circulating antigens and intensity of T. solium cysticerci (r (348)  = 0.63, P < 0.001)., Conclusions: The Ag-ELISA test characteristics reported in this study indicate that the test is more reliable in ruling out T. solium cysticercosis in pigs, than in confirming it. Hence, a negative result will almost certainly indicate that a pig has no infection, but a positive result should always be interpreted with caution. Estimates of T. solium prevalence based on Ag-ELISA results should, therefore, be adjusted for test performance characteristics and occurrence of T. hydatigena.

A field trial was conducted in Tanzania to determine the effectiveness of TSOL18 vaccine used concurrently with oxfendazole (OFZ), and of OFZ alone, on T. solium cysticercosis determined by organ and half carcase dissection of slaughter age pigs. This study followed a quasi-experimental group design. Suitable trial sites were randomly allocated to either treatment group T1 (OFZ treatment alone [30mg/kg, Paranthic 10%]) or T2 (TSOL18 [1ml, Cysvax] plus OFZ). Three 4-monthly treatments were administered to eligible pigs. A random selection of pigs were necropsied at baseline and at endline, 2-3.5 months after the final treatment. Additionally, untreated pigs from T1 and T2 areas were necropsied at endline to provide contemporaneous comparisons with T1 and T2 pigs. Baseline prevalence of viable T. solium cysticerci for T1 was 25.5% (Exact 95% CI: 13.9, 40.3; n = 12/47), and for T2 was 12.0% (CI: 6.4, 20.0; n = 12/100). At endline, prevalence was 2.8% for T1 (CI: 0.1, 14.5, n = 1/36) and 0% for T2 (CI: 0, 4.7, n = 0/77). Among untreated pigs, three had viable cysticerci, one from T1 area (12.5%, CI: 0.3, 52.7; n = 1/8) and two from T2 area (5.7%, CI: 0.7, 19.2, n = 2/35). Fisher's exact test showed significant changes in prevalence from baseline to endline in both groups (T1: p = 0.005, T2: p = 0.001). Firth's penalized Maximum Likelihood method suggested the changes were not significant relative to their controls (T1: p = 0.245, T2: p = 0.076). These findings showed a significant reduction in the prevalence of viable cysticerci from baseline to endline after both interventions. However, the changes could not be definitively attributed to the interventions due, in part, to small numbers of control pigs. Concurrent administration of the TSOL18 and OFZ cleared infection among assessed pigs whereas infection remained after treatment with OFZ only. Further studies including larger sample sizes would be required for more definitive conclusions. A One Health approach is recommended for rapid and sustainable impact., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Taenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis is a disease of substantial economic and public health importance particularly in low-income countries. The disease was reported to be endemic in Mbeya Rural and Mbozi districts, in the southern highlands of Tanzania, the major pig production area in the country. In 2008, using B158/B60 antigen detection enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA), porcine cysticercosis prevalence of up to 32% was reported in the districts. A number of interventions have been implemented in selected villages including an integrated approach consisting of improving pig confinement and selective treatment of pigs with oxfendazole. Mass drug administration with praziquantel targeting schistosomiasis, with an expected effect on T. solium, was also provided to school-age children in the area. This study aimed at providing an update on prevalence and intensities of porcine cysticercosis; and assessing farmers' knowledge, attitudes and practices which could be associated to disease transmission in the area. The study involved a questionnaire survey conducted using face-to-face household interviews with 890 consenting farmers; and carcass dissections performed on 282 pigs randomly selected from the surveyed households., Results: Twenty-six pigs (9.2%) were infected with T. solium; of which two-thirds (65.4%) had light to moderate infection intensities (1-1000 cysticerci), and one-third (34.6%) had heavy intensities (> 1000 cysticerci). Questionnaire results showed that only 5.7% of the respondents perceived T. solium cysticercosis to be an important disease in pigs. About 18.5% of the respondents were aware of T. solium taeniasis, but 32% of them were unaware of how the infection is acquired. Half of the respondents had seen cysticerci in pork, of whom 61% were not aware that consumption of infected pork could cause taeniasis. Latrines were observed to often (90%) lack doors with 45% considered accessible to pigs., Conclusions: This study provided an evidence that the disease was still endemic in the area. Poor knowledge of farmers, attitudes, and risky practices responsible for disease perpetuation were also revealed. A One Health approach targeting the whole area incorporating improvement of farmer knowledge regarding disease transmission needs to be trialed as a feasible approach to control.

Background: Despite Taenia solium taeniosis/cysticercosis (TSTC) having been put high on the global agenda of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), which over the last years has received a lot of attention, there has been no control programmes in place in sub-Saharan Africa, a highly endemic region. This could be attributed to lack of awareness of many stakeholders on the burden and impact of T. solium. This information is essential in guiding TSTC policies, practices and research agendas as well as encouraging cross-sectoral collaboration in the control of this important zoonotic parasite using a One Health approach. National elimination of the parasite is the foundation for global eradication. This will require that substantial country-level information is provided to all key stakeholders. We have mapped out TSTC research evidence in Tanzania to inform on disease burden and potential for integrated control measures., Methodology/principal Findings: A scoping review of all TSTC studies undertaken in Tanzania and published up to December 2018 was conducted. The articles were searched from PUBMED, AJOL, Google Scholar and Google in general. Fifty-one (51) articles met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed. Prevalence of taeniosis of 2.3% - 5.2% was estimated based on copro-antigen ELISA while human cysticercosis of >16% was estimated based on serum antigen ELISA (Ag-ELISA) or IgG Western Blot. Neurocysticercosis (NCC) contributed significantly to epilepsy in adults. Farm prevalence of porcine cysticercosis were 6.0% - 17.4% (lingual examination) and 1.5% - 33.3% (Ag-ELISA). Slaughter-slab prevalence were 0% - 18.2% (routine meat inspection). Lacking latrines, watering pigs with river or pond water, and feeding pigs with potato peels were associated with porcine cysticercosis prevalence. Washing hands by dipping method increased the risk of human cysticercosis. In 2012, the number of DALYs/1000 person-years for NCC-associated epilepsy was 0.7 (95% UI, 0.2-1.6), around 5 million USD (95% UI, 797,535-16,933,477) were spent due to NCC-associated epilepsy and nearly 3 million USD (95% UI, 1,095,960-5,366,038) were potentially lost due to porcine cysticercosis. Three rounds of annual treatment of school-age children with praziquantel significantly reduced prevalence of taeniosis and porcine cysticercosis. Health education was efficacious in improving knowledge and attitudes favourable for control of TSTC while a single dose of oxfendazole 30 mg/kg body weight was efficacious in eliminating T. solium cysticerci from pig musculature., Conclusions/significance: The observed high burden of TSTC and the significant contribution of NCC to epilepsy in Tanzania warrant urgent interventions. Evaluation of best control options should make use of disease transmission dynamics models such as cystiSim, taking into account findings from the field based intervention studies. In addition, locally adapted management guidelines for people suffering from NCC are urgently needed., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The presence and distribution of various species of canine hookworms in Africa are poorly known. The main objective of this study, therefore, was to identify the hookworm species present in canine faecal samples from Morogoro, Tanzania, using molecular techniques. Faecal samples from 160 local dogs were collected and hookworm positive samples processed to recover larvae for further molecular characterization. DNA was extracted from pools of larvae from individual samples (n = 66), which were analysed subsequently using two different molecular approaches, polymerase chain reaction-linked restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and species-specific PCR coupled with Sanger sequencing. The PCR-RFLP technique detected only the presence of the ubiquitous Ancylostoma caninum in the 66 samples. However, by species-specific PCR coupled with Sanger sequencing we identified ten samples with A. braziliense, two with Uncinaria stenocephala and five with A. ceylanicum. Thus, all four known species of canine hookworms were identified in Morogoro, Tanzania. To our knowledge this is the first report of the detection of the presence of U. stenocephala and A. ceylanicum in Africa using molecular techniques. In addition to their veterinary importance, canine hookworms have zoonotic potential and are of public health concern.

Porcine cysticercosis (PC) caused by Taenia solium larvae is continuing being important zoonotic disease in many developing countries. It poses a serious public health risk and leads to economic losses to pig production industry. This study was carried out to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with PC transmission in Nyasa District. To establish the prevalence of PC, a cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 698 pigs by tongue examination, 330 pigs by Ag-ELISA test and 22 pigs by meat inspection. A questionnaire survey was administered to a member of selected households to gather information on pig management and other potential factors that could explain the prevalence of PC in the area. Results showed that 44 pigs were positive by tongue examination (6.3%, 95% C.I. 4.5-8.1%), 110 tested positive for Ag-ELISA (33.3%, 95% C.I. 28.22-38.38%) and meat inspection detected four infected pigs (18.2%, 95% C.I. 2.08-34.32%). Risk factors associated with PC transmission in Nyasa District were free ranging of pigs ( p  = 0001), sex of pig ( p  = 0.011), source of pork ( p  = 0.0001) and outdoor defecation (0.0001). The present findings indicate that PC is endemic in Nyasa District and that free-ranging of pigs in conjunction with limited use of latrines contributes significantly to PC transmission. Therefore, mandatory pig confinement, together with use of latrine/toilets should be considered in controlling PC in Nyasa District.

The aim of this study was to measure hair cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) concentrations in naturally Taenia solium infected and non-infected control pigs and assess the effect of an environmental change on the aforementioned parameters. Three hair patches were obtained from 13 T. solium infected and 15 non-infected controls sows, respectively corresponding to 3 time points (prior to, at and approximately two weeks after arrival at the research facility). Cortisol and DHEA were extracted using methanol and analysed by radio immune assay. Mean hair cortisol concentrations were significantly lower (p<0.001) in T. solium infected (4.7±3.0pg/mg) compared to control pigs (9.0±3.7pg/mg) prior to arrival at the research facility, however no significant difference was observed between the two groups at arrival and after approximately two weeks. Similar patterns were also observed for DHEA concentrations (infected pigs 253.9±82.3pg/mg, control pigs 387.7±116.4pg/mg) (p<0.001). Results showed that lean animals had significantly higher cortisol concentrations in both groups, infected and controls pigs, while DHEA was not significantly different between lean and normal animals. Results of this study have shown that an environmental change could have an effect on pigs' hormonal levels suggesting an undergoing adaptation process. After the pigs were kept under the same conditions, fed and watered ad libitum, no significant differences were observed between the groups, but a drop in DHEA concentrations was observed in all the pigs. Weight however had an effect on cortisol levels as lean animals had significantly higher cortisol concentrations in both groups, compared to normal pigs., (Copyright © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is a disease caused by the zoonotic parasite Taenia solium lodging in the central nervous system. Both humans and pigs can get NCC. The impact of the disease in pigs has so far been little explored. The aim of this study was to describe the effect of NCC on social and feeding behaviours as well as the pattern of activity as indicators of reduced welfare in naturally infected sows. In total 13 T. solium naturally infected and 15 non-infected control sows were videotaped for 2 consecutive weeks using close circuit television cameras at research facilities at Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. Videos were analysed at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the 2 week recording period. For each time point, videos were analysed during feeding, while the enrichment was provided, and by recording every half an hour the sows' behaviours performed over the course of a whole day. Sows with NCC spent significantly less time at the feeding trough, especially during the second half of the feeding period. Infected sows were also more passive e.g. lying and standing still significantly more during a whole day period and showed social isolation compared to non-infected control sows by performing behaviours more distant to their nearest neighbour. Results of this study indicated that NCC changed the behaviour of infected sows. The behavioural changes are indicative of decreased welfare. Efforts to reinforce the animal welfare aspect are needed as this has so far been neglected., (Copyright © 2017 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) caused by Taenia solium is a serious neurological disease. In humans neurological symptoms have been thoroughly studied and documented, however, there is limited information on clinical signs in pigs infected with T. solium cysticerci. Among the scientific community, it is in fact believed that pigs with NCC rarely show neurological signs. The aim of this study was to describe clinical manifestations associated with NCC in pigs and correlate the manifestations to the number and distribution of cysticerci in brains of naturally infected pigs in Tanzania. Sixteen infected and 15 non-infected control pigs were observed for 14 days during daylight hours, and subsequently videotaped for another 14 consecutive days using close circuit television cameras. All occurrences of abnormal behaviour (trembling, twitching, mouth and ear paralysis, ataxia, dribbling, salivating, eye blinking, walking in circles) were recorded. At the end of the recording period, pigs were slaughtered and their brains dissected, cysticerci counted and locations noted. During the recording period, two infected pigs were observed having seizures. Some of the observed autonomic signs during a seizure were chewing motions with foamy salivation and ear stiffening. Motor signs included tonic muscle contractions followed by a sudden diminution in all muscle function leading to collapse of the animal. Stereotypic walking in circles was observed on several occasions. At dissection, both pigs had a high number of brain cysticerci (241 and 247 cysticerci). The two pigs with seizures were also older (36 months) compared to the others (18.3 months, ± 8.2 standard deviation). Results of this study have shown that pigs with NCC can develop clinical signs and suffer from seizures like humans with symptomatic NCC. Results of this study could potentially open up a new experimental pathway to explore the aetiology of neurological symptoms in humans with NCC associated epilepsy., (Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) caused by Taenia solium cysts is a frequent but neglected parasitic disease of the central nervous system (CNS) worldwide. The aim of this study was to describe anatomical locations of cysts in the CNS and the corresponding inflammation. A total of 17 naturally infected pigs were used to evaluate the distribution of cysts and, of these, seven were used to evaluate the corresponding inflammation further, through histopathology. Clinical signs in the pigs included dullness, sluggishness, somnolence, apathy and loss of consciousness. Cysts were distributed in all cerebral lobes, i.e. 39.7% in the frontal lobe, 20.3% in the parietal lobe, 20.0% in the occipital lobe and 19.7% in the temporal lobe, and only 0.4% in the cerebellum. No cysts were found in the spinal cord. Cysts were localized as follows: 47.9% in the dorsal subarachnoid, 46.9% in the parenchyma, 4.4% in the subarachnoid base and 0.9% in the ventricles. The results of the histopathology revealed lesions in an early inflammatory stage, i.e. stage I, in all anatomical locations except for two, which showed more of an inflammatory reaction, stage III, in one pig. It was concluded that clinical signs in pigs were neither pathognomonic nor consistent. These signs, therefore, cannot be used as a reliable indicator of porcine NCC. Furthermore, T. solium cysts were found to be in abundance in all cerebral lobes, and only a few were found in the cerebellum. Regarding the inflammatory response, no significant differences were found in the location and total number of cysts. Thus, further studies are needed to explain the determinants of cyst distribution in the CNS and assess in detail clinical signs associated with porcine NCC.

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) caused by Taenia solium cysts is a frequent but neglected parasitic disease of the central nervous system (CNS) worldwide. The aim of this study was to describe anatomical locations of cysts in the CNS and the corresponding inflammation. A total of 17 naturally infected pigs were used to evaluate the distribution of cysts and, of these, seven were used to evaluate the corresponding inflammation further, through histopathology. Clinical signs in the pigs included dullness, sluggishness, somnolence, apathy and loss of consciousness. Cysts were distributed in all cerebral lobes, i.e. 39.7% in the frontal lobe, 20.3% in the parietal lobe, 20.0% in the occipital lobe and 19.7% in the temporal lobe, and only 0.4% in the cerebellum. No cysts were found in the spinal cord. Cysts were localized as follows: 47.9% in the dorsal subarachnoid, 46.9% in the parenchyma, 4.4% in the subarachnoid base and 0.9% in the ventricles. The results of the histopathology revealed lesions in an early inflammatory stage, i.e. stage I, in all anatomical locations except for two, which showed more of an inflammatory reaction, stage III, in one pig. It was concluded that clinical signs in pigs were neither pathognomonic nor consistent. These signs, therefore, cannot be used as a reliable indicator of porcine NCC. Furthermore, T. solium cysts were found to be in abundance in all cerebral lobes, and only a few were found in the cerebellum. Regarding the inflammatory response, no significant differences were found in the location and total number of cysts. Thus, further studies are needed to explain the determinants of cyst distribution in the CNS and assess in detail clinical signs associated with porcine NCC.

In order to further characterize the immune response around the viable or degenerating Taenia solium cysts in the pig brain, the involvement of cysteine protease in the immune evasion was assessed. Brain tissues from 30 adult pigs naturally infected with T. solium cysticercosis were subjected to histopathology using hematoxylin and eosin stain, and immunohistochemistry using caspase-3 antibodies. Histopathological evaluation revealed lesions of stage I which was characterized by presence of viable parasite surrounded with minimal to moderate inflammatory cells and stage III characterized by the presence of a disintegrating parasite surrounded with high inflammatory cells. The results of immunohistochemistry indicated caspase-3 positive cells interspaced between inflammatory infiltrate mainly in stage I lesions, indicating the presence of cysteine protease. This result confirms the earlier hypothesis that cysteine protease may play a role in inducing immune evasion through apoptosis around viable T. solium cysts., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Smallholder semi-confined pig production is a fast growing practice in sub-Saharan Africa with an unfortunate outcome of high prevalence of Taenia solium cysticercosis and other parasitoses. The widely used anthelmintic for control of endo and ecto-parasites in pigs in the area is ivermectin at a recommended dose of 0.3mg/kg. This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety in pigs after subcutaneous injection of ivermectin (IVM, 0.3mg/kg) and orally administration of oxfendazole (OFZ, 30mg/kg) in treatment of porcine cysticercosis and other parasitoses in naturally infected pigs. A total of 61 pigs with T. solium cysticercosis (38 males and 23 females) as identified by tongue palpation with age ranging from 3 to 24 months were recruited. The pigs were stratified based on sex, age and number of cysts on the tongue and randomly allocated to IVM, OFZ and control groups. Three days before treatment and two weeks after treatment faecal samples and skin scrapings were taken to establish the burden of endo- and ectoparasites, respectively and the effect of the treatment. No adverse effect was observed in any of the treatment groups throughout the study period. Half of the pigs from each group were slaughtered at week four and the remaining half at week twelve post treatment. The IVM treatment group had no significant effect (p=0.224) on T. solium cysts viability in comparison to the control group. Significant effect on cysts viability was observed in the OFZ treated group (p<0.001) compared to IVM and control groups in all muscle tissues. Regarding to brain cysts, neither of the drugs was efficacious. Ivermectin and OFZ treatments significantly reduced (p<0.001) the faecal egg count of Ascaris suum, strongyles and Trichuris suis two weeks after treatment. At slaughter, Oesophagostomum dentatum, Ascarops strongylina and Physocephalus sexalatus were recovered from pigs in the IVM treated and in the control groups. Ivermectin was 100% effective in control of Sarcoptes scabiei. In conclusion, IVM at a single dose of 0.3mg/kg was efficacious against ectoparasites but did not effectively cure pigs from T. solium cysticercosis or nematodes. Oxfendazole, on the other hand, killed all nematodes and muscle cysts, but did not have any effect on ectoparasites. A combination of the two drugs would be a most useful treatment option for control of pig parasitoses in sub-Saharan Africa., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Porcine cysticercosis, an infection caused by Taenia solium metacestodes, is continuously being reported in low-income countries of Latin America, Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. The disease was declared eradicable by the International Task Force for Diseases Eradication (ITFDE) in 1993, and it is listed among the 17 WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases and Neglected Zoonoses that are potentially eradicable. In view of that, WHO has proposed a step-wise approach to its elimination, including chemotherapy of infected pigs. Different drugs have been tested on porcine cysticercosis with varying efficacies. These include flubendazole, fenbendazole, albendazole, albendazole sulphoxide, oxfendazole, praziquantel, and nitazoxanide. This review summarises available information on the efficacies and adverse effects shown by these drugs in pigs. Oxfendazole has shown to be effective for the control of porcine cysticercosis; however, it needs to be integrated with other control approaches. There is a need for standardised guidelines for evaluating the efficacy of anthelmintics against porcine cysticercosis, and more efficacy studies are needed since the conclusions so far are based on a limited number of studies using few infected pigs.

As meat consumption is increasing worldwide to cover for protein demands, also raise concerns and challenges regarding meat hygiene and safety. The current one year follow up study aimed at investigating on sanitary practices and occurrence of zoonotic conditions, during post-mortem examination, in cattle at slaughter in Morogoro Municipality abattoir. Sanitary practices were assessed through direct observation where as routine post-mortem inspection procedures were employed to detect zoonotic conditions in cattle at slaughter. During the study period a total of 30,713 cattle were slaughtered and inspected at the abattoir. Results revealed poor hygienic practices at the level of abattoir surrounding, the slaughter operation area, personnel as well as meat vans. Whole carcasses, lungs, livers, hearts and heads were condemned due to zoonotic conditions at rates of 0.026%, 1.96%, 1.61%, 0.02% and 0.21% respectively. Bovine tuberculosis, Cysticercus bovis cysts, fasciolosis and hydatidosis were the responsible zoonotic conditions for the condemnations. Bovine tuberculosis was a leading zoonotic cause of condemnations accounting for 95.7% of lungs and 100% of all head and carcass condemnations. Cysticercus bovis cysts were ranking the second in serving as causes of condemnations closely followed by fasciolosis and lastly hydatidosis. Occurrence of disease conditions with zoonotic implication in cattle at slaughter, meant for human consumption, may pose significant economic and public health risks to especially disaster-prone marginalized communities. Thus, there is a need to introduce appropriate control measures of livestock diseases to minimize the rate of infection; and eventually reduce economic losses and safeguard public health.

A study was carried out to establish the prevalence of extra-intestinal porcine helminth infections and to assess the pig slaughter slab sanitary conditions in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania. A total of 24 privately owned pig slaughter slabs were assessed. All slaughter slabs were sub-standard; wrongly located, poorly designed and constructed and lacked most basic requirements for a slaughter house. Because of inadequate slaughtering, disposal and cleaning facilities, the slaughter slabs were under unhygienic condition with questionable safety, soundness and wholesomeness of the pork produced. Routine meat inspection procedures were used to detect extra-intestinal porcine helminth infections. Of the 731 examined pigs; 8.1%, 5.9% and 0.4% were infected with ascariosis, porcine cysticercosis and hydatidosis, respectively. It was noted that almost all slaughter pigs in Dar es Salaam originated from different regions. Based on the region of origin, the status of porcine cysticercosis was 8.2% for Dodoma (n = 98), 8.2% for Manyara (n = 260) and 6.9% for Mbeya (n = 116). This study disclosed the unhygienic sanitary condition prevailing in Dar es Salaam pig slaughter slabs and recommends that strategies should be devised to improve the situation. Porcine ascariosis and cysticercosis were widely prevalent and caused economic losses due to condemnations. Because of their zoonotic nature, the observed extra-intestinal porcine helminth infections in pig pose a public health risk among consumers. Thus, there is a need to introduce appropriate control measures of parasitic infections in pigs.