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Rubber seed oil (RSO) (Hevea brasiliensis) was extracted from rubber seeds by chemical means. The effect of temperature on the oil yield was investigated. The experiment suggested that the maximum yield of the oil occurs at 60 °C. This is a result of the proximity to the boiling point of n-hexane, which is about 68 °C. Epoxidized and hydroxylated RSOs were further synthesized by performic acid generated in situ by the reaction of formic acid with 30% hydrogen peroxide. The physiochemical properties of the epoxidized rubber seed oil (ERSO) and hydroxylated rubber seed oil (HRSO) were determined. A separate study was also carried out on castor seed oil (CSO). The improved products were characterized with respect to their configuration and properties. Spectroscopic analysis was carried out on the oil base stocks (RSO, CSO, ERSO, and HRSO). All of the experimental findings were compared with one another. The lubricating properties of CSO and HRSO are further studied as a result of their common hydroxyl nature to ascertain their suitability as a lubricant base. Both oils can be categorized as a nondrying oil with saponification values of 179.52 and 255.25 mgKOH/g, respectively, and as such possess advantageous properties for industrial application. When compared to one another, HRSO appears to be a more effective choice as a lubricant base. This is because of its higher viscosity index of 380.65. The outcomes of this study indicate that hydroxylated and epoxidized RSO with high oxirane content can be synthesized concurrently by one-pot multistep reactions.

Cassava starch and expanded polystyrene [EP] (Styrofoam) were collected and converted into adhesives. Two starch-based glue were produced from the hydrolysis and dexrination of cassava starch, while the expanded polystyrene was formulated through the dissolution of the solid in benzene. The produced adhesives were tested based on their bonding capacity using four substances: thermoplastic cup, plywood, garden hose and papers. The Expanded polystyrene glue could form bonds with all four materials. The tack/drying time was also recorded during the bonding moments. The rheological properties of the formulated adhesives were studied and it was seen that the glues produced showed properties of a shear-thinning/ pseudo-plastic fluid

Aims: In this work, the effect of drying temperature on the available carbohydrate is investigated. Background: Nigerian climate favours the cultivation of banana and it is a ready fruit delight in almost all homes. Hybrids and polypoids of the species musa acuminata and musa balbisiana are very common. Unfortunately, post-harvest losses of 40 – 60%, of this energy rich fruit are encountered yearly. Drying is an age long method of preservation which has stood the test of time. Bananas are known to possess high carbohydrates with low glycaemic index which makes it a healthy fruit or snack. Objective: To determine the optimum drying temperature for the drying of Banana fruit. Methods: The banana fruit was peeled and sliced to about 5 mm thick and dried in a tray dryer at varying temperatures of 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C. The control sample was air dried at the average prevailing temperature of 30 °C. Results: Results obtained showed that increased drying temperature favoured more loss of moisture from the samples and in turn, favoured an increase in the available carbohydrate in the dried fruit. The ash, fat and crude fibre content marginally changed with drying temperature. Conclusion: The optimum temperature for treated and untreated samples, from the results obtained, were 60 °C and 70 °C respectively. Drying impacts positively on the available sugar in the Banana fruit.

The aim of this project work was to evaluate the effect of bacteria – Serratia in the enzymatic hydrolysis of Foolscap [FS] and Newspaper [NP] into fermentable or reducing sugars. The effect of temperature and hydrolysis time (number of days) on the extent of concentration of reducing sugar yield were assessed and quantified using Dinitrosalicylic acid test method (DNS). A proximate analysis was carried out on the substrate before hydrolysis. Alkaline pre-treatment using sodium hydroxide and deinking process for the removal of paper with ink for higher susceptibility of the substrate before the enzymatic hydrolysis were carried out. The temperature effect on the waste sample were analysed at 37°C, 40°C and 45°C for 7 days, it was observed that at 37°C, saccharification was higher than at 40°C and 45°C. The general observation was in that Serratia had a very good effect on the waste paper samples. A 3-D surface plot revealed that the yield of sugar increased along with the hydrolysis time (number of days), with Foolscap having the highest yield of about 21mg/ml. The comparative analysis shows that the highest yield was obtained at the temperature of 37°C, for both substrates used.

Rubber seed oil (RSO) (Hevea brasiliensis) was extracted from rubber seeds by chemical means. The effect of temperature on the oil yield was investigated. The experiment suggested that the maximum yield of the oil occurs at 60 °C. This is a result of the proximity to the boiling point of n-hexane, which is about 68 °C. Epoxidized and hydroxylated RSOs were further synthesized by performic acid generated in situ by the reaction of formic acid with 30% hydrogen peroxide. The physiochemical properties of the epoxidized rubber seed oil (ERSO) and hydroxylated rubber seed oil (HRSO) were determined. A separate study was also carried out on castor seed oil (CSO). The improved products were characterized with respect to their configuration and properties. Spectroscopic analysis was carried out on the oil base stocks (RSO, CSO, ERSO, and HRSO). All of the experimental findings were compared with one another. The lubricating properties of CSO and HRSO are further studied as a result of their common hydroxyl nature to ascertain their suitability as a lubricant base. Both oils can be categorized as a nondrying oil with saponification values of 179.52 and 255.25 mgKOH/g, respectively, and as such possess advantageous properties for industrial application. When compared to one another, HRSO appears to be a more effective choice as a lubricant base. This is because of its higher viscosity index of 380.65. The outcomes of this study indicate that hydroxylated and epoxidized RSO with high oxirane content can be synthesized concurrently by one-pot multistep reactions.

This article presents data on Aspergillus niger effects on the biologically-mediated remediation of soil polluted by raw and treated crude oil (Escravos Light blend). Absorbance of different concentrations of polluted soil samples (5% and 8% w/w) and types (raw and treated), for simulating different onshore crude oil spill, were obtained from the A. niger inoculated samples using ultra violet–visible (UV–Vis) spectrophotometry. This measurement was carried out for each sample at selected intervals for the 30-day measurements. The bioremediation data, presented in the article, were subjected to descriptive/analytical statistics of probability density functions and goodness-of-fit test-statistics for dataset-detailing and dataset-comparisons. Information details from these data of biologically-mediated remediation of crude oil polluted soil are useful for furthering research on bioremediation kinetics such as hydrocarbon content analyses, crude oil pollutant removal performance, biodegradation rate parameter and biostimulant efficiencies by the A. niger effects on the different concentrations of polluted soil.

In this study, the comparative analysis of KOH and NaOH catalysts (used separately and combined in equal proportion) during the trans-esterification of melon seed oil was investigated. The major effects and interactions of four variables (methanol/oil mole ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature and reaction time) on the yield of biodiesel were studied. The results showed that, under the same experimental conditions, KOH catalyzed trans-esterification produced the highest biodiesel yield, followed by NaOH catalyzed process and then trans-esterification process involving a mixture of the two catalysts (in equal proportion). KOH catalysed process gave optimum conditions of 6.11 methanol/oil mole ratio, KOH concentration of 1.20 w/w% Oil, reaction temperature of 50 _C, reaction time of 83 minutes and optimum yield of 80.7%. NaOH catalysed process gave optimum conditions of 6.20 methanol/oil mole ratio, NaOH concentration of 1.19 w/w% Oil, reaction temperature of 52 _C, reaction time of 83 minutes and optimum yield of 77.9%. While the process involving the mixture of the two catalysts gave optimum conditions of 6.08 methanol/oil mole ratio, catalyst concentration of 1.05 w/w% Oil, reaction temperature of 56 _C, reaction time of 85 minutes and optimum yield of 76.2%. Material balance carried out on the three categories of analysis favoured KOH trans-esterification process and the suitability of the biodiesel yield models obtained in these three categories was justified by high R2 values of 0.9489, 0.9631 and 0.9605 respectively.

This data article details Pseudomonas aeruginosa effects on the bioremediation of soil that had been polluted by different concentrations, 5% w/w and 8% w/w, of raw (for simulating oil spills from well-heads) and treated (for simulating oil spills from flow lines/storage tanks) crude oil. UV/VIS spectrophotometry instrumentation was used for obtaining absorbance measurements from the Nigerian Escravos Light blend (sourced from Chevron® Nigeria) of crude oil polluting soil samples, which, thus, also simulates light and heavy onshore oil spillage scenarios, in a 30-day measurement design. Data on bioremediation effects of Pseudomonas aeruginosa added to the crude oil polluted soil samples, and which were monitored at intervals via the absorbance measurement techniques, are presented in tables with ensuing analyses for describing and validating the data presented in graphs. Information from the presented data in this article is useful to researchers, the oil industries, oil prospecting communities, governments and stakeholders involved in finding solution approach to the challenges of onshore oil spills. This information can also be used for furthering research on bioremediation kinetics such as biostimulant analyses, polluting hydrocarbon content/degradation detailing, by Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain of microorganism, on petroleum pollutant removal from soil that had been polluted by crude oil spillage. Keywords: Bioremediation, Onshore oil pollution simulating system, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, UV/VIS Spectrophotometry, Absorbance, Crude oil polluted soil

Biodiesel was produced from the transesterification of soybean oil using calcium oxide and cow bone (an animal waste bone that contains hydroxyapatite, a calcium phosphate mineral) as heterogeneous catalysts. The soybean oil used was characterized using gas chromatography mass spectrometer (GCMS) and the cow bone catalyst produced was characterized using X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer. The effects of the variation of methanol/oil mole ratio (9–15), catalyst concentration (10–20 wt/wt%) and reaction temperature (55–65 °C) on biodiesel yield during the transesterification of soybean oil with methanol was investigated. Reaction time of 3 hours and stirring rate of 500 rpm were kept constant. It was observed that the calcination of cow bone catalyst (at 800 °C) enhanced its conversion to apatite [Ca5(PO4)3OH] and increased the yield of biodiesel obtained. Biodiesel yield results revealed an optimum condition of methanol/oil mole ratio of 9, catalyst concentration of 15 wt/wt% and reaction temperature of 55 °C. Also, the results obtained showed that the performance trends of the two catalysts used were similar. And the close values of highest biodiesel yields obtained when the two heterogenous catalysts were used separately (yields of 94.8 and 92.2% using calcium oxide and calcined cow bone catalysts respectively) implies that the use of low-cost and readily available calcined cow bone catalyst is a promising alternative to CaO catalyst.

This study was conducted to investigate the degree of bioremediation that would occur in the samples of soil polluted with raw and treated crude petroleum (oil) with the aid of Aspergillus niger (fungi) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (bacteria). This was achieved by monitoring the Organic carbon content in the soil over 45 days and pH over 25 days. Four systems of 500 g soil were polluted with 40 g treated crude petroleum, while four systems were contaminated with 40 g raw crude petroleum. The eight systems were labeled accordingly. Two systems for raw crude control and treated crude control (RCC and TCC) were left as control, two systems for raw crude Aspergillus niger and treated crude Aspergillus niger (RCA and TCA) were treated with Aspergillus niger only, two systems for raw crude Pseudomonas aeruginosa and treated crude Pseudomonas aeruginosa (RCP and TCP) were treated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa only and the last two systems for raw crude Aspergillus niger and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (RCAP and TCAP) were treated with both Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus niger . At the end of the bioremediation period, the results obtained showed that the pH was not particularly a solid parameter to estimate the degree of bioremediation. This is because a proper trend in the results obtained could not be determined. Additionally, it was observed that Aspergillus niger (fungi) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (bacteria) alone and separate remediate raw crude polluted soil better than treated crude polluted soil. This was determined by the TOC (Total Organic Carbon) values on the 45th day of the experiment.

The situation in Praia may be critical at the moment because of its current aerosol loading and retention. In this study we obtained 14-year (2000-13) data set from satellite and ground observation from a multi-angle imaging spectro-radiometer (MISR) and an aerosol robotic network (AERONET). The analytic and statistical techniques were used to investigate the aerosol loading and retention over Praia-Cape Verde. The average annual aerosol retention over the study area increased by 18%. The highest aerosol retention rate of 39% was recorded in 2010. The aerosol loading was found to be higher between December to February. Since the ventilation over Praia is low, aerosol loading impact on the health and welfare of life forms may be threatened. The study also suggested other sectors of the economy that can be affected by the increased aerosol loading over Praia.

Waste paper is known to be the major component of organic solid waste. In this research, waste paper was used as a feedstock for the production of fermentable sugar with the aid of two (2) microorganisms. The waste papers used included newspaper, officpaper and foolscap paper. Enzymatic hydrolysis was carried out on the waste papers after the alkaline treatment using Aspergillus niger and Pseudomonas aeruginosa at different temperatures of 25 o C, 37 o C and 42 o C. The highest yield was obtained from the foolscap paper, which produced reducing sugar at a maximum concentration of 486.66 mg/L after two weeks using Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 37 o C. On the other hand, hydrolysing using Aspergillus niger, produced reducing sugar at a maximum concentration of 365 mg/L at an optimum temperature of 25 o C with office paper.

Researchers have found out several ways by which environmental pollution can be of positive relevance by recycling the waste to ensure a cleaner and healthier environment. The bleaching process is a crucial process in palm oil refining in which an adsorbent is majorly used to adsorb the unwanted colour pigments and a wide range of other impurities. This study aims to modify three different adsorbents; Groundnut hull, Snail shell, and rice husk and processed them into powder form as Groundnut hull powder [GHP], Snail shell powder [SSP] and Rice husk powder [RHP] respectively. The effects of three factors: temperature, mass and time were investigated on the response. MINITAB 19 software was employed which resulted in 20 runs. The optimization of the bleaching effects imposed by the adsorbents on palm oil using Central Composite Design (CCD) was evaluated. The free fatty acid and peroxide value decrease with bleaching while the saponification value increased with bleaching. The analysis conducted shows that groundnut hull was able to adsorb the most significant value of FFA and peroxide value in the palm oil. The lowest value of FFA obtained indicates that bleaching increases the shelf life of the oil and makes it more suitable for soap making., Groundnut hull, Snail shell, peroxide value, Rice husk, CCD, adsorbent, bleaching.

This work is aimed at promoting a healthier means of livelihood by investigating insignificant areas of pollution. In this work, soy candles produced from soybeans were proven as healthier alternatives to paraffin candles. Soxhlet extraction method was used with hexane as solvent. The extracted oil were then solidified. The wax was moulded into candle and tests were carried out to prove its claims as a safer alternative to paraffin wax. The results supported this claims that soy candles is more economical and produced lesser soot than the paraffin candles.

Composite flour comprising rice, kersting’s groundnut and lemon pomace were produced. The percentage blends of the composite flours based on the proximate composition and functional properties were optimized using optimal mixture design of response surface methodology (RSM). The optimum blends were subjected to further analyses (pasting properties and Mixolab). The overall best blend was selected for extrusion. The extrusion process was optimized using central composite design of RSM. The variables were moisture content, screw speed and temperature while the dependent variables were lateral expansion, residence time, throughputs, water absorption index and water solubility index. The microbial analysis as well as the sensory evaluation of the extrudates was also evaluated. The result showed that addition of kersting’s groundnut had positive effect on the protein content while lemon pomace had positive effect on both fibre and protein contents. Blend with highest rice flour had the best pasting properties. The Mixolab results had C1 stage similar to wheat flour while it had no C2–C5 stages. The optimum blend for extrusion was 97 °C barrel temperature 12% moisture and 90 rpm screw speed which present the best lateral expansion, water absorption index and water solubility index. All the snacks had high general acceptability.

In this paper, the total-corrosion behaviour of reinforcing-steel embedment in concrete samples, having Cymbopon citratus (C. citratus) leaf-extract admixture, and which were immersed in 3.5% NaCl (a saline/marine simulating environment) is investigated. Electrochemical data of macrocell current measurements were obtained, as an easy to undertake corrosion monitoring technique, from the steel-reinforced concrete specimens, that had been admixed with different concentrations of the C. citratus leaf-extract, before being immersed in the corrosive test-medium. The obtained data were then rendered to prescribed specification from ASTM G109 for the modelling of the total-corrosion prevailing in the reinforcing-steel within the concrete test-samples. Results obtained showed that C. citratus leaf-extract admixture in the concrete samples led to reduction in the total-corrosion of the reinforcing-steel, and, especially, in agreements with previous works where other types of electrochemical monitoring techniques had been employed.

The bleaching process is a crucial process in palm oil refining in which an adsorbent is majorly used to adsorb the unwanted colour pigments and a wide range of other impurities. Groundnut hull was collected and processed into powder form as Groundnut hull powder [GHP], the powder was used to remove the colour pigments and other minor impurities from crude palm oil. Free fatty acid (FFA) analysis was carried out on the palm oil before and after bleaching. The effects of three factors: temperatures, mass and time were investigated on the response. Central Composite Design [CCD] employed resulted in 20 runs. The conducted analysis has shown that groundnut hull was able to reduce FFA composition as well as reduce the colour of the palm oil to a desired colour.

Land form, management policy and socio-economic characteristics have been identified as factors responsible for poor solid waste management. This study examined the influence of livelihood assets on waste sanitation/disposal behaviour in Lagos Metropolis: a case study of Okobaba. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to obtain data for analysis. From the data collected and analyzed descriptively, efforts were made to identify and examine the respondents’ socio-economic characteristics, waste sanitation characteristic, livelihood assets and the connection between livelihood assets and waste sanitation behaviour of people in the area under study. The research result established the existence of variations in the waste disposal characteristics of respondents in the area under study. Therefore, it is recommended that a deliberate policy to provide livelihood assets or conditions that will improve access to better livelihood capacity, adequate for low-income households to meet their basic psychological livelihood needs. This is imperative in ensuring attitudinal change towards waste management and advancement to a second-order need like environmental sanitation.

The use of Moringa oleifera seed in water purification has reduced the use of chemical-based coagulants which is detrimental to both human and livestock. This project aimed at testing the microbial properties of M. oleifera seed oil extract on some selected pathogens (Bacterial and fungi). The oil was extracted using Soxhlet apparatus with ethanol as solvents. Gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) analyses were carried out for the identification of active components in the oil extract. The zone of inhibition test carried out showed that this particular plant seed oil extract has antifungal property with Candida albicans and Rizopus stolonifera with highest zone of inhibition. The raffinate was used for water purification and the oil for the production of an antifungal soap.

Fermented African locust bean seeds can be used as substitute to chemically based food spices. It improves sensory properties of foods which includes the organoleptic characteristics. P. biglobosa (African locust bean) seeds were processed and fermented to a vegetable protein based African condiment known as ‘Iru’. Fermentation process was carried out at four different temperatures which are 40, 50, 60 and 70°C. The monitoring of the fermentation rate was based on three parameters namely: Carbon dioxide production, pH and reduction in substrate weight. Substrates were inoculated with Bacillus subtilis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae as starter culture while fermentation process took place for the duration of five days under anaerobic condition. The result obtained from the pH of fermented seeds confirmed the fermentation process to be alkaline in nature.

The effect of storage (shelf life) on percentage protein composition of stored fermented soybean seed was studied. Samples were fermented with Bacillus substilis (as a starter culture) and without (natural fermentation) for 3 days. Two methods of preservation were used, namely; oven drying and salting. Each sample was oven dried within 4-24hours and the percentage moisture content removed was calculated. 1-3% salt was also added to the fermented samples to monitor the effect of salting on the shelf life. Constant weight was obtained from 12hours of drying and about 0% moisture content which is very close to total dryness was obtained in both fermented soybean samples. Samples were monitored for two weeks. The protein content reduced with storage duration while pH moved towards acidic medium.

The optimum conditions for the fermentation of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) into a vegetable protein based condiment (Iru) were developed using Levenberg-Marquardt (or Powell) method (using PSI software) with three (3) variables namely; inoculum concentration (bacillus subtilis), temperature and the fermentation duration. African locust bean seeds were fermented at various temperature of 40 - 70 °С for five days (120 hours) with different concentrations of Inoculum. The proximate analysis shows that fermentation increased the percentage protein. Protein had the highest composition with about 51 % after 72 hours at the lowest fermentation temperature of 40°С.

The present study described the use of percentage moisture left and salting as a preservative method in studying the shelf life of fermented Parkia biglobosa (African Locust bean seed) over a period of four weeks. Bacillus subtilis was used as starter culture in the fermentation of Parkia biglobosa to ‘Iru’. Fermented samples [Iru] were dried to various % moisture content and salt of various concentrations were added. Samples were stored for four weeks at room temperature in an air tight plastic container. Functional properties such as pH, % protein, % titratable acidity and peroxide value of the seeds were analyzed on weekly basis during the storage period. Protein concentration of the preserved samples

Response surface methodology (RSM) has been employed to model and optimize the extraction of oil from Mentha spicata a local leaf used for several microbial and insect activities. The detailed effects of the solvents, weight of leaf (X1) and time of extraction (X2) have been studied. The interaction effects of these two (2) variables on the oil yield (X3) have been investigated using Central Composite Design of experiments. The results were analyzed using MINITAB 17 software. Soxhlet extraction method was used with three (3) different solvents hexane, ethanol and petroleum ether. Petroleum ether gave the highest yield of oil using Response Surface Methodology. The oil extract of the leaf was analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry [GC-MS], about 15 components were discovered with Carvone as the most abundant [27.68%.]. The antimicrobial activities of the oil extract against some fungi and bacteria viz., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus Subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae was evaluated. From the microbial analysis the zone of inhibitions indicated that the extract had strong activity against bacteria and fungi. Mentha spicata oil is rich in compounds with therapeutic activities and several substances of industrial interest. Carvone, Neophytadiene, methyl ester, palmitic acid and Linolenic were also discovered by the GC/MS analysis, presenting good microbial activity performance. The aim of this work was to establish the antimicrobial claim of the Mentha spicata oil extract.

This paper investigates Tectona grandis capped silver nanoparticle material effects on the microbial strains inducing microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) of metals. Leaf-extract from Tectona grandis natural plant was used as a precursor for the synthesis of silver-nanoparticle material, which was characterised by a scanning electron microscopy having Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy (SEM + EDS) facility. Sensitivity and resistance studies by the synthesized Tectona grandis capped silver nanoparticle material on three Gram-positive and three Gram-negative, thus totalling six, MIC inducing microbial strains were then studied and compared with what was obtained from a control antibiotic chemical. Results showed that all the microbial strains studied were sensitive to the Tectona grandis capped silver nanoparticle materials whereas two strains of microbes, a Gram-positive and a Gram-negative strain, were resistant to the commercial antibiotic chemical. These results suggest positive prospects on Tectona grandis capped silver nanoparticle usage in corrosion control/protection applications on metallic materials for the microbial corrosion environment.

African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) seed was fermented to a protein based soup and stew additive. Fermentation was carried out for three days after which the fermented seeds were oven dried at a very low temperature for four days. Dried fermented seed were powdered and compressed using the fabricated mold into cubes

The continuous global quest for management of the scarce water resources to make available to the human populace, portable water for drinking has necessitated this study. River Romi is the effluent discharge point of Kaduna Refining and Petrochemical Company Limited where the refinery waste water is disposed after treatment. This study investigates the impact of Kaduna refinery effluent on River Romi. The physicochemical properties of Kaduna River, Kaduna refinery effluent, Romi River (upstream and downstream) were analyzed from dry and wet seasons. The results obtained were compared with standard set by regulatory bodies and it was discovered that Kaduna refinery effluent has the highest number of pollutants. The body of River Romi upstream was found to contain low level of contaminants which are generally within the standard limits. Comparing the results of both upstream and downstream of River Romi shows that the concentration of pollutants increased after the introduction of effluent.Keywords: Effluent, Water, River, Refinery, Romi, Kaduna, UNEP, NDWS

Mathematical modelling of in situ (on site) bioremediation of crude petroleum polluted soil was investigated. An unsteady state mathematical model based on bulk flow of oil through the soil and molecular diffusion through the pores of the soil was developed. The parabolic partial differential equation developed was resolved into a system of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) by orthogonal collocation method and the necessary boundary condition was used. The resultant system of ODE was solved using fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. The simulated data gave a good agreement with experimental data.

The main advantage of biodiesel to fossil-diesel is attributed to the ester functional group in its structure. Many researchers have affirmed that the functional group assists the diesel engine to function at its peak. However, the efficiency of the biodiesel to keep the mechanical piston-strokes in the diesel engine is experimentally presumed low especially if the engine works for a long time. In this research, it was proposed that the cyclic break down of the ester functional group of biodiesel is a major disadvantage. Butanol, ethanol and methanol biodiesel were produced in the laboratory using waste vegetable oil from restaurant. The Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy or spectrophotometer (UV–Vis) was used to investigate the cyclic break down in the Butyl-, Methyl- and Ethyl- biodiesel. The Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy or spectrophotometer (UV–Vis) was used to probe the various biodiesel samples with a start and stop wavelength of 500 and 900 nm respectively. The wavelength interval was 1 nm at a high scanning speed. Between 500–550 and 800–850 nm, the Ethyl- and Butyl- biodiesel had an absorbance of 2.7 and 1.6 respectively with 3 peaks each. Methyl-biodiesel had the highest absorbance of 1.7 at 600–650 nm with 1 peak. The computational extrapolation of all outcomes affirms that cyclic breaking is highest in Butyl-biodiesel. The most resilient biodiesel type was the Ethyl-biodiesel. However, it was recommended that cyclic breaking may be preserved by ratio-mixing of biodiesel with fossil-diesel.

An experimental study has been carried out on an alternative source of energy from citrus peel waste. A widely used material, pectin, has been extracted from orange peel (OP) and subsequently converted into ethanol with the use of a bacteria and fungi. Dried peels were split into several particle sizes of 0.075, 0.5, 1.0 and 5 mm. It was noted that OP with 0.75 mm particle size produced pectin of low volume while larger 1.0 mm OP particle size produced a high pectin volume. OP of 802 g was used to produce 1, 770 ml of pectin, this illustrate that citrus fruit (specifically orange) contains pectin in a large quantity. A mixture of E.coli (bacteria) with yeast (fungus), and their individual components were used on pectin obtained. However, it was observed that a mixture of pectin, E.coli & S. cerevisiae, and a combination of sample pectin with E.coli produced an encouraging volume of ethanol as against no ethanol produced when a mixture of sample pectin, yeast and pectin sample only. The amount of energy contained in the gross ethanol produced was 1526.6 btu, this can be combined with purified gasoline so as to attain the optimum energy content that can be used to run an indigenous processing plant for citrus fruit in Nigeria.

The optimum conditions for the fermentation of a local legume known as African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) into a vegetable protein based food condiment or spice (Iru) were developed using Levenberg-Marquardt (or Powell) method (using PSI software) with three (3) variables namely; inoculum concentration (bacillus subtilis), temperature and the fermentation duration. P. biglobosa seeds were fermented at various temperature of 40 - 70 °C for five days (120 hours) with different concentrations of Inoculum. The proximate analysis shows that fermentation increased the percentage protein. Protein had the highest composition with about 51 % after 72 hours at the lowest fermentation temperature of 40°C.

Most papers are made from virgin wood-based pulp of hardwood sources but recently, softwood have received enormous attention as alternative to hard wood because the hardwood takes a significant number of years to mature enough for use in the pulp and paper industry unlike softwood which are majorly annual plants. The annual crop in focus in this work is the yellow open-pollinated variety of corn which generates tons of waste at harvest. A novel attempt is made to ascertain the viability of corn sheaths as raw material for the pulp and paper industry by carrying out a comprehensive analysis on the pulp and paper made from the pulp. The sheaths were dried, shred and cut into pieces suitable for the digester and the pulps obtained were analysed for physico-chemical properties. Hand sheets were also made using the generated pulp and its physico-mechanical properties were analysed. Results obtained were compared with pulp from corn husks from other parts of the country, three Nigerian fibre sources – silk cotton, bagasse and rice straw and other foreign non-wood sources and found to be of competitive properties. Pulp properties of Lignin content, ash content, cellulose, hot and cold water solubility of the fibres were 13.72 ± 1.21%, 1.27 ± 0.23%, 53.26 ± 1.11%, 15.20 ± 2.11 and 6.14 ± 2.43 respectively while the mechanical properties of paper from the pulp were Bursting strength (282.163 KPa m2/g), Tear strength (146.119), Tensile strength (257.6N/m) and Tensile Index (3.9Nm/g). It was found that in all properties, the corn sheath was better than the rice straw fibers but not as good as the silk cotton and bagasse fibers. However, the corn sheath has been identified, as a viable raw material for the pulp and paper industry in Nigeria.

Studies on the epoxidation of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seed oil, a renewable source with formic acid was performed in the presence of 30% hydrogen peroxide at a of temperature 40, 50, 60, 70 °C. The process is favoured by an increase in temperature forming a product with high oxirane content which is as a result of mole ratios of formic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Products of high oxirane content are commercialy viable in the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Natural rubber and other products can be obtained from this in- situ technique. Studies in this research shows that the rate of epoxidation increases with an increase in temperature.Oxirane values of 2.30, 3.62 and 4.73 for the various temperature. However high oxirane content of 6.22 was obtained at 70 °C which is in line with literature. FTIR analysis was also carried out on the epoxidized rubber seed oil which shows the peaks of oxirane cleavage.

This study involves the extraction of oil from three sources: orange peel, guava leaves, and cassia fistula leaves using Soxhlet apparatus. The variables considered in this study were time of extraction and sample weight. Minitab statistical software was used to randomize the runs. The combination of operating parameters that gave the optimum yield for the three sources were identified. The regression equation for each source was reported. The coefficient of determination (R2) value for orange, guava leaves and cassia fistula extract were 99.51%, 99.90%, and 99.77% respectively. This shows that the model is a good prediction tool for extraction of oil from these sources. Based on the R2 values guava leaves (99.90%) gave the highest prediction accuracy followed by Cassia fistula (99.90%), with orange leaves having the lowest R2 value (99.77%) among the three sources considered.

The effectiveness of remediating soils polluted with crude and treated hydrocarbon oil using a fungi - Aspergillus niger, bacteria - Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the combination of the two were investigated and the first order kinetics were studied. Eight systems of 500g soil sample were polluted with both raw and treated crude oil. Four systems were polluted with 100 ml treated crude oil while other remaining systems with same quantity of raw crude oil. Two systems with raw and treated crude oil were left as control (RCC and TCC). Samples of soil polluted with raw crude oil were amended with A. niger (RCA) and P. aeruginosa (RCP) respectively, while treated crude samples were also treated with same (TCA) and (TCP) only. The last two systems were treated with both P. aeruginosa and A. niger (RCAP and TCAP). First order bioremediation kinetics and biostimulant efficiency for these systems were studied by monitoring Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH). The result obtained at the end of the bioremediation period, revealed that treated crude oil polluted soil remediate faster and better than raw crude oil polluted soil. The highest level of bioremediation occurred in systems amended with both A. niger and P. aeruginosa which had about 98 % TPH decrease.

The anaerobic digestion process for biogas production was investigated on food waste (FW) and cow dung (CD) using Pseudomonas aeruginosa as inoculum. The food waste and cow dung were co-digested as the substrate with bacteria (P. aeruginosa). Five digesters were prepared to observe the maximum gas production potential, methane production rate and duration for biogas production. Food waste (FW) was co-digested with bacteria in two proportions (1:5ml, 1:10ml) and co-digested with Cow dung (CD) in two proportions (1:1, 1:0.5). The digesters were all operated in batch process under mesophilic condition (35ºC). The daily weights of the tubes were measure and some physical characteristics of the substrate were determined before and after the process. Production of gas started 3-4 days after commencement for the digesters with cow dung, 4-5days for the digesters with bacteria and 3 days with only food waste. Food waste with 1kg, cow dung produced the most biogas with a cumulative volume of 88.5g/kg. The highest concentration of biogas was found in the 1st digester consisting of 2kg CD and 2kg FW with a methane content of 52% and 48% CO2. The availability and renewable nature of food waste, ease of management of biogas produced and development of energy makes biogas a better option than the use of fossil fuel to the much-awaited solution to the energy crisis in Nigeria and developing countries.

This work identifies the chemical components of Azadirachta indica (neem plant) leave extracts . A. indica is a vascular plant which belongs to the Meliaceae family and its use as herb in folk medicine is widely acclaimed. Essential oils were extracted from leaves of A. indica. Steam and solvent extraction methods were used with two sol- vents: Ethanol and Hexane. The crude oil extracted using both extraction methods were analyzed using GC–MS. The result of the analyses show that the major con- stituents were Eicosane (9.7662%), Diacenaphtho[1,2-j:1 � ,2 � -l]fluoranthene (11.301%), Phenol, 4-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)methylene]amino]- (11.84%) and (3Ar,6S,9ar)-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9a- octahydro-8-methyl-3a,6-methano-3ah-cyclopentacycloocten-10-one (36.883%) in steam extracted oil; Eicosane (10.259%), Diacenaphtho[1,2-j:1 � ,2 � -l]fluoranthene (13.51%) and Butanamide, N-(2-methoxyphenyl)-3-oxo- (16.615%) in the ethanol extracted oil, and (3Ar,6S,9ar)-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9a-octahydro-8-methyl-3a,6-methano-3ah-cyclopentacycloocten- 10-one (10.72%), n-Hexadecanoic acid (14.688%) and 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, (Z,Z,Z)- (34.719%) in the hexane extracted A. indica essential oil.

Functional jam from blends of banana, pineapple and watermelon pulp was produced and evaluated. The aim was to develop a locally but nutritionally rich, functional jam. Various blends of the fruit pulp were considered in order to select the best. The percentage compositions of the blends were 50:25:25; 25:50:25; 25:25:50 and 33.33:33.33:33.33 of banana, pineapple and watermelon pulps respectively. In addition to the pulp blends, 2.9% pectin produced from citrus peel was added together with citric acid, sodium benzoate and sugar. The entire mixture was heated at 110°C for 55 to enhance the viscosity of the blends. Proximate analyses, mineral analyses, brix, pH and Vitamin constituents of the sample were determined. The blend with the best result from the analyses was selected for rheological and sensory evaluations. The best blend was 25:25:50. The result of the proximate analyses of this best blend were 8.58% protein, 1.41% fibre, 0.38% ash, 3.92% fat, 2.52% moisture and 83.20% carbohydrate. The vitamin compositions were; 1.32 mg/100 g vitamin A, 8.22 mg/100 g vitamin C and 0.015 mg/100 g vitamin E. The pH was 4.16, viscosity 58.77 cp while the specific gravity was 1.016. The mineral compositions of the best blend were 0.34 ppm iron, 28.90 ppm sodium, 80.90 ppm potassium, 1.50 ppm calcium and 0.60 ppm magnesium.

The effect of some physical and chemical treatments on the functional and pasting characteristics of native tigernut starch (TNNS), native sweet potato starch (SPNS) and blends of tigernut-sweet potato starch were studied. Native tigernut and sweet potato starches were subjected to physical (annealing and heat-moisture) and chemical (acetylation) modifications and compared to tigernut (T)-sweet potato (S) starches blends (T75:S25, T50:S50, T25:S75). Only heat-moisture treatment (THMT) significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased water absorption capacity of the TNNS while only acetylation significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the oil absorption capacity of the native tigernut starch. The bulk density was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced by annealing and acetylation. In addition, TNAS, mixture of blends and SPNS had higher swelling capacity than TNNS. The final and peak viscosities of TNNS, SPNS and all the starch blends were between (217–280 RVU) and (214–395.3 RVU) respectively with SPNS having the highest values, followed by T75:S25 (75% tigernut starch: 25% sweet potato starch) and TNNS in that order. TNNS also had the highest setback viscosity. Samples THMT, TANN and TNAS significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced the breakdown viscosity and the pasting temperature. The scanning electron micrograph showed that the native and modified starches of tigernut were similar to those of other starches. Overall, the results showed that many of the pasting characteristics of TNNS were comparable to SPNS, while SPNS had with better functional characteristics.