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Four algal species (Isochrysis galbana, Chaetoceros muelleri, Tetraselmis suecica and Nannochloropsis oculata) were tested experimentally as food for the calanoid copepod Gladioferens imparipes, which could be a potential food for marine fish larvae. Each of the algal species was used at four separate concentrations (5 × 104, 1 × 105, 2 × 105 and 4 × 105 cells/ml). The results illustrated that I. galbana and C. muelleri were the most suitable diets for the copepod species, promoting high survival of the adults and shortening the maturation time. With both algal species, intensive successful rearing of nauplii to mature adults was conducted at all concentrations of the algal species, resulting in high number of ovigerous females. Meanwhile, I. galbana was the best diet enhancing the production of egg sac in the cultivated copepod. In addition, the fatty acids in the copepod species were affected by the algal diets, resulting in variable amounts of the HUFA (DHA, EPA and ARA) in the copepod relative to the algal diets.

The Eastern Harbour of Alexandria, on the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, is characterized by environmental complications due to different types of anthropogenic stressors associated with water dynamics inside the harbor as well as the rapid water exchange with the open sea. These conditions caused chronic eutrophication conditions, with variable levels in the long term. The present study followed daily some physicochemical parameters, nutrients, and phytoplankton biomass, for a complete year. The results indicate coincidence on the short-time scale between the nutrients, phytoplankton biomass, pH, and dissolved oxygen. Spearman's correlation illustrated strong positive correlations between algal blooms and both pH and dissolved oxygen. The present study recorded twelve separate algal blooms, with an average of chlorophyll-a > 16.7 μg/L, confirming the continuity of high eutrophication in the Eastern Harbour. The seasonal Mann-Kendall tests showed that summer attained significant increasing trends for chlorophyll-a, silicate, nitrite, and nitrate, while winter has a significant decreasing trend for chlorophyll-a and pH.

Spatio-temporal patterns of the distribution of crustaceans from shallow hard bottoms along the Alexandria coast (Egypt, Mediterranean Sea) were studied during a complete year cycle and also in relation to potential drivers of change (both biotic and abiotic), including variation in habitat-forming species. Overall, the crustacean assemblages appeared poor, including only 14 species belonging to Amphipoda (five species), Isopoda (five species), Tanaidacea (two species), Cirripedia and Decapoda (one species each). The distribution patterns of crustacean assemblages appeared significantly variable both in the spatial and in the temporal dimension on a rather unpredictable basis, albeit variation was related to changes in dominant algal and invertebrate habitat formers. High variability and low species richness observed suggest that the analyzed assemblages are selected by local unfavorable environmental conditions. In fact, the crustacean hard bottom fauna is composed by a bulk of tolerant forms, including the dominant Tanais dulongi, Apohyale perieri, Dynamene bidentata, Sphaeroma serratum, Elasmopus pectenicrus, and Jassa marmorata. Their spatio-temporal dynamics, as well as those of the remaining species, and correlations with the variation of habitat formers and environmental variables are reported. This is a baseline assessment of the crustacean diversity along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, thus having paramount importance for understanding the predicted future changes of biodiversity for the area.

Shallow hard bottom and intertidal soft bottom polychaete assemblages of the Alexandria coast, southeastern Mediterranean (Levantine Sea), were studied during a complete annual cycle in order to analyze spatial temporal patterns of variation in assemblages, and relevant factors related to polychaete distribution. The present study recorded a total of 73 species, belonging to Syllidae (22 species), Nereididae (9 species), Serpulidae (6 species), Eunicidae (5 species) and other 19 families. The assemblages experienced pronounced spatial and temporal variation throughout the study area, but spatial variation appeared more important in determining the observed patterns. Polychaete distribution related to variation of grain size and sessile macrobenthos cover suggesting that these structural variables accounted more than the physical-chemical ones (namely BOD, dissolved oxygen, organic carbon, organic matter, salinity, temperature, pH) in influencing the patterns of assemblages’ distribution. The present study is the southeastern-most one dealing with ecology and distribution patterns of hard bottom polychaetes from the Mediterranean Sea, as well as one of the few studies dealing with intertidal soft bottom polychaetes in the Levant Basin.

Nineteen benthic polychaete species were recorded for the first time inthe intertidal zone of the Alexandria coast, south-eastern Mediterranean Sea. They belong toSyllidae (7 species), Hesionidae (3 species), Serpulidae (2 species) and7 other families (one species each). Of these species Eunice miurai Carrera-Parra& Salazar-Vallejo 1998 appears to be new to the Mediterranean Sea,while four of the alien species earlier recorded in the Mediterranean were found for thefirst time in Egyptian waters: Opisthosyllis brunnea Langerhans 1879,Loimia medusa Savigny 1822, Syllis schulzi Hartmann-Schröder1960, Phyllodoce longifrons Ben-Eliahu 1972. The newly recorded species demonstrated markedly different patterns offrequency of occurrence and numerical abundance. Spirobranchus triqueterLinnaeus 1758, S. schulzi, L. medusa and Salvatoria clavataClaparède 1863 were permanent and abundant species in fouling samples along the Alexandria coast.Saccocirrus papillocercus Bobretzky 1872 persisted in the sediments at two sites,with a much higher count at the stressed one, while Protodrilussp. inhabited sediments at two other sites throughout the year, sometimes invery high numbers. In addition, the alien species found earlier, Braniaarminii Langerhans 1881, Odontosyllis fulgurans Audouin &Milne-Edwards 1833 and O. brunnea Langerhans 1879, were frequentlyobserved along the Alexandria coast.

Beginning in December 2015, an unknown bryozoan with large, deep-orange colonies began to appear in the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria, Egypt. Here we identify the species as belonging to the predominantly Indo-Pacific cheilostome genus Calyptotheca Harmer, 1957 and describe it as a new species, Calyptotheca alexandriensis n. sp. The new species exhibits intensive growth sporadically on different hard substrata, including rocks, submerged concrete walls, ropes, ships’ hulls, and metal pipes supporting marina piers. It is restricted to the Eastern Harbour, particularly in shallow parts, with the densest aggregations on the metal pier supports. The source of this bryozoan is enigmatic but most likely involved introduction by shipping.

The phytoplankton community was studied in historically and ecologically important area on the southeastern Mediterranean coast at Alexandria, Egypt. Monthly samples were collected during January-December 2009 from 2 areas [Eastern Harbor (EH) and Kayet Bey (KB)]. A total of 162 phytoplankton species were identified in the EH and 110 species in the KB, dominated by diatoms in both areas (100 and 64 species, respectively). The phytoplankton count showed an annual average of 1.387 x 10(6) cells L-1 in the EH and 0.108 x 10(6) cells L-1 in the KB, and biomass (Chlorophyll a) of 2.4 and 2.0 µg L-1, respectively. Diatoms and dinoflagellates demonstrated clearly different roles in the phytoplankton cycle in the 2 areas, with the persistent occurrence of several toxic species, sometimes in high count, like the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima and the dinoflagellates Scrippsiella trochoidea, Pyrophacus horologium, Prorocentrum micans, Prorocentrum triestinum, Prorocentrum cordata, Gonyaulax catenata and Protoperidinium subinerme. Regardless of the stopping of great part of the discharged wastes to the study area, it is still suffering from eutrophication all the year round, as indicated from high nutrient concentrations and intensive phytoplankton growth.

The hydrography, nutrient levels and plankton abundance were investigated monthly for a complete annual cycle in the southwestern part of Abu Qir Bay, the most polluted and biologically productive area on the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. Intense temporal and spatial variability was observed in all measured parameters characteristic of the effects of several effluents discharged into the bay. Based on the present investigation, the southwestern Bay can be divided ecologically and biologically into two parts: one including the near shore strip, which is directly affected by the waste waters, and a second comprising the southwestern part of the coastal strip and the offshore stations, both of which are relatively far away from the land-based effluents.The Bay water was characterized by low transparency (monthly average: 64-280 cm), dissolved oxygen (monthly average 2.0-6.8 mg/l) and surface salinity (monthly average: 24.8-37.9 ppt), the highest limits usually being in the offshore section. Water fertility and plankton production were high in the Bay indicating an occasionally acute degree of eutrophication, particularly nearshore. Great variations occurred in the concentrations of nutrients throughout the year, with monthly averages of 0.8-50.88 mM for ammonia, 0.42-3.28 mM for nitrite, 1.29-17.36 mM for nitrate, 0.32-3.61 mM for reactive phosphate and 1.09-33.34 mM for reactive silicate. Similarly, the abundance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton showed pronounced temporal and spatial variability, whereas the monthly average chlorophyll-a fluctuated between 2.06 and 52.64 mg/l and zooplankton between 31x103 and 248.6x103 ind./m3. However, the absolute values of all parameters indicated remarkably wider ranges of variations.Significant correlation was found between chlorophyll-a and some ecological parameters like temperature, salinity, transparency, dissolved oxygen, nitrite and between zooplankton and temperature, while there was a significant correlation between nutrient concentrations and salinity changes.

Eutrophication as one of the importunate environmental hazards in the aquatic ecosystems causes pronounced deterioration of the water quality and represents serious threat to the biotic components of this ecosystem. The main environmental effects of eutrophication are increase of suspended particles owing to extensive macroalgal blooms, decrease of water clarity, and increase in the rate of precipitation that led to the destruction of benthic habitat by shading of submerged vegetation. In addition, other important effects are also known such as the bottom-water hypoxia, production of CO2 associating the decomposition of intensive produced organic matter which enhances water acidification, and altering biogeochemical processes, including sediment anoxia, accumulation of deleterious hydrogen sulfide, and nutrient cycling. Shift in the phytoplankton community was frequently reported in numerous eutrophic coastal waters owing to the variable nutrient requirement of different phytoplankton groups and the ratios between the different nutrients in these waters. Eutrophication is often accompanied by algal blooms which are frequently harmful and cause various injuries to the aquatic animals, such as clogging of fish gills, poisoning by toxins secretion, and localized anoxia, which consequently lead to detrimental effect on the fishing resources and the national economy through mass mortality of variable aquatic animals. The hypoxia conditions in bottom waters cause escape of sensitive demersal and other benthic fishes, mortality of bivalves, echinoderms and crustaceans, and extreme loss of benthic diversity, which led to changes in the diet of bottom-feeding fishes as well as shift in dominance among demersal fish species. Increase of algal growth/organic production rates led to changes in the benthic community structure, such as replacement of hermatypic corals with coralline algae, filamentous algae, macroalgae, and/or a variety of filter feeders and increase of bioerosion in some forms. Trophic linkages between pelagic and benthic communities are affected by eutrophication in the coastal waters, where the feeding habit of higher consumers such as benthic fish changes to derive high percentage of their energy from pelagic primary production sources. Shellfishes as an intermediate link between the water column and demersal fish could also be affected by eutrophication and will impact (as prey) on the demersal fish production. Meanwhile, increasing turbidity with eutrophication led to a shift in fish species owing to change of feeding on zooplankton to benthic organisms. Severe shading and light attenuation caused by blooms of both macroalgae and phytoplankton in eutrophic conditions hinder the photosynthetic processes in benthic plants and has led to the decline of seagrass habitats. High nutrient levels may lead to disturbance in nitrogen and phosphorus metabolism in seagrass and consequently cause a change in plant communities. Coral reefs are affected by eutrophication in different aspects. The organic compounds released from algal blooms promote microbial activity on coral surfaces and cause coral mortality, while synergistic effect of both the dissolved organic matter and rates of bioerosion has a pronounced role in reef degradation. Harmful algal blooms caused a complete loss of the branching corals, and substantial reductions in the abundance, richness, and trophic diversity of the associated coral reef fish communities. Eutrophication and siltation have severely stressed many fringing and offshore reefs that prefer to grow in nutrient-poor waters, and cause physiological changes in growth and skeletal strength, decrease of reproductive effort, and a reduced ability to withstand disease. In many marine eutrophic habitats, zooplankton community experienced a decline in species richness and abundance, change in structure, size, reproduction rate, and feeding habits. Size change in zooplankton occurs owing to the replacement of small species by another relatively large species of the same group, while the structure may change because of the trophic relationship of zooplankton with their prey (primary producers) and predators (fishes). Although benthic foraminiferans have been widely used as indicators of eutrophication in coastal marine ecosystems, low species diversity and high population densities of several benthic foraminiferans were reported in eutrophic area. On the other hand, smaller opportunistic benthic foraminiferal species dominate in the coral reef ecosystems and lead to a decline of larger endosymbiont-bearing taxa, while the hypoxia-tolerant foraminiferan species increased in abundance against the disappearance of the more sensitive species.

The coastal area of Egypt on the Mediterranean Sea extends for about 1,200 km. It hosts a number of important residential and economic centres, like the cities of Alexandria, Port Said, Damietta, Rosetta, Matruh, and AL-Arish. The coastal strip between Alexandria and Matruh hosts tens of tourist villages, which are usually crowded by visitors during summer. Many activities are known in the coastal area, including fishing, industrial, tourism, trading and agricultural, oil and gas production, and transportation. There are five large ecologically different coastal lagoons connected to the sea coast, representing together about 25% of the total area of the Mediterranean wetland. These lagoons are considered as reservoirs for agricultural, industrial, and municipal wastes, which are discharged from surrounding cities and cultivated lands. The Egyptian Mediterranean coast receives huge volumes of wastewaters every year through the coastal lagoons and from other land-based effluents. These wastes are loaded by variable amounts and types of pollutants, in addition to great amount of nitrogenous and phosphorous compounds, which in turn cause high level of eutrophication along a significant part of the Mediterranean coast, particularly of both the Nile Delta region and Alexandria coast. Eutrophication is an importunate problem to the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, resulting in fundamental changes in the structure of the planktonic and benthic communities as well as fish mortality. Eutrophication was accompanied by the appearance of several harmful algal species at several hot spots along the coast. The level of eutrophication demonstrated wide variation along the Egyptian coast relative to the variations in the volume and contents of discharged wastes.

The biochemical composition (carbohydrates, protein, lipids, fatty acids and amino acids) of the nereid polychaete Pseudonereis anomala Gravier 1901, from a shallow part of the Alexandria coast (Egypt), was studied seasonally. The results revealed that P. anomala had a lower water content, higher carbohydrates and protein, but approximately similar or higher lipid levels than several other polychaetes. Fatty acids appeared to be dominated by unsaturated acids, constituting seasonally 49.6–81%, while saturated acids reached high amounts in winter and spring (23.3 and 38.3% respectively). C20:5n-3 was the major polyunsaturated fatty acid, accompanied by small amounts of C18:4n-3, C20:4n-6, C16:1n-7 and C20:1n-9. C18:0 dominated the saturated fatty acids for most of the year, except in autumn when C16:0 was the major one.

The Damietta coast is part of the Egyptian Mediterranean coast off the Nile Delta and has recently been polluted as a result of intensive human activities.The environmental parameters and protozoan community in the area were studied biweekly from January to December 2007. The results of the environmentalparameters indicated low salinity, oxic and anoxic conditions, high nutrient levels and intensive phytoplankton growth. A total of 69 protozoan specieswere identified, belonging to Amoebozoa (8 species), Foraminifera (12 species), non-tintinnid ciliates (22 species) and tintinnids (27 species). The numerical density of protozoans was high over the whole area, with annual averages between 8.2 × 103 cells m-3 and 51.4 × 103 cells m-3.Spring was the most productive season for protozoans, but several distinct peaks were observed during the year at the sampling sites. The protozoangroups showed clearly different spatial patterns in both composition and abundance: whereas amoebozoans and non-tintinnid ciliates were dominant in themore polluted areas (sites IV and V), tintinnids dominated in the less polluted areas (sites, I, II and III). Several pollution indicators wererecorded: amoebozoans - Centropyxis aculeata, Centropyxis sp., Cochliopodium sp.,Difflugia sp.; non-tintinnids - Bursaridium sp., Frontonia atra,Holophrya sp., Paramecium sp., Paramecium bursaria,Vasicola ciliata, Vorticella sp., Strombidium sp.; tintinnids- Favella ehrenbergii, Helicostomella subulata, Leprotintinnus nordgvisti,Tintinnopsis beroidea, Stenosemella ventricosa, Tintinnopsis campanula,T. cylindrica, T. lobiancoi, Eutintinnus lusus-undae.

The biometric characteristics and reproductive biology of the nereid polychaete Pseudonereis anomala were studied monthly from August 2009 to July 2010 at two ecologically different sites (Abu-Qir and El-Mex) on the Alexandria coast, south-eastern Mediterranean Sea. The maximum body length and weight showed different values at the two sites: 9.8 and 11.9 cm, and 0.77 and 1.3 g respectively. The formula of the length-weight relationship indicated allometric growth, whereas the regression equation between length to the 6th segment and weight reflected isometric growth. Immature individuals were the major component of the worm population at the two sites, making up 69.1% at Abu Qir and 66.9% at El Mex; the respective percentages of males and females at these sites were 5.8–8.1% and 22.8–27.3%. Spawning was observed all the year round with female fecundity conspicuously lower at Abu-Qir (annual average: 26556 ± 999 eggs per female) than at El-Mex (annual average: 47 955 ± 2916 eggs per female). However, oocyte size was greater at Abu Qir (diameter: up to 250 μm) than at El Mex (diameter: up to 220 μm).