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In the present research, 28 populations of ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi L.) were evaluated for agro-morphological traits and essential oil yield in two consecutive years. Then, selected ajowan populations from these two years were used for further morphophysiological and biochemical studies under different salinity levels (control, 60, 90, and 120 mM NaCl). The main components of the oil were thymol (32.7–54.29%), γ-terpinene (21.71–32.81%), and p-cymene (18.74–26.16%). Salt stress caused an increase in essential oil content in the Esfahfo and Qazvin populations. The highest total phenolic and flavonoid contents were found in the Arak population grown in 60 mM NaCl (183.83 mg TAE g−1 DW) and the Yazd population grown in 90 mM NaCl (5.94 mg QE g−1 DW). Moreover, the Yazd population exhibited the strongest antioxidant activity based on DPPH (IC50 = 1566 µg/mL) under 60 mM NaCl and the highest reducing power (0.69 nm) under 120 mM NaCl. The results revealed that low and moderate salt stress improves the phytochemicals of ajowan seeds, which are useful for pharmaceutical and food applications. In this research, some morphological traits, as well as essential oil yield, were evaluated in open pollinated versus self-pollinated plants. As a result, plant height, number of flowering branches, and crown diameter significantly decreased in some populations, while a significant increase was obtained for number of flowers per umbel and seed numbers per umbel. Finally, self-pollination of ajowan might provide new insights for further breeding programs to increase oil or thymol content in ajowan.

Ducrosia anethifolia Boiss is an aromatic vegetable and medicinal plant of Apiaceae family. In this study, morphological and essential oil studies as well as ISSR analyses were employed to investigate genetic diversity in 120 Moshgak accessions of 24 Iranian populations. High variations were observed in morpho-physiological traits (morphological and essential oil contents) of the populations in 2 consecutive agronomic years. In both studied years, the highest leaf (1% and 1.2%) and seed (2.46% and 2.9%) essential oil contents were recorded for the Abarkuh population. For ISSR analysis, 15 primer combinations were employed that produced 120 polymorphic bands. Dendrogram and STRUCTURE software grouped the accessions into four clusters although such grouping did not fit the geographic regions perfectly. Among the populations, Abarkuh and Kerman exhibited the highest genetic distance. Based on analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), only 4.32% of the total genetic diversity was observed among the populations, while 95.68% was detected within the populations. Moreover, the studied populations exhibited a low genetic differentiation (Gst = 0.13) but a high gene flow (Nm = 3.26). It may be concluded that the results of the study provide new insights regarding the genetic diversity of Moshgak germplasm that will be useful for its conservation management and breeding programs for oil- and yield-related traits.

In the present study, we evaluated a pretreatment with four LED light sources (red, blue, red + blue, and white) in two genotypes (green and purple) of basil on the growth parameters, stress oxidative markers, non-enzymatic antioxidants, osmoprotectant compounds, ion content, and polyphenolic profile under both control and salinity stress conditions. The results indicated that 150 mM of NaCl decreased biomass, RWC, and K

There is little information about the role of fungal endophytes on plant performance under oxygen-limited conditions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Epichloe endophyte symbiosis on tall fescue responses to oxygen stress in a greenhouse experiment. The experiment was conducted with seven air-filled porosity levels in a sandy loam soil using genotypes (75C and 75B) of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) infected with and without endophytic fungus Epichloe coenophiala (E+ and E–, respectively). Growth and physiological variables were determined to characterize plant response to oxygen-limited conditions, after nine-month application of the treatments. The results showed that E+ 75B plants benefited from endophytic symbiosis in all air-filled porosity levels, showing a higher plant biomass, better water status and lower catalase and ascorbate peroxidase activity than E– 75B plants. In contrast, a reverse trend was observed for the genotype 75C. The E– plants also coped with poor aeration by forming adventitious roots at the soil surface, aerenchyma formation within the root tissue, and increased alcohol dehydrogenase activity. The presence of endophyte improved the genotype 75B performance under anaerobic conditions, while endophyte had an adverse effect on the performance of genotype 75C. This is probably due to incompatibility between Epichloe endophyte and genotype 75C. Epichloe endophyte is likely to decrease the flooding-induced oxidative stress and prevented the over-accumulation of reactive oxygen species in the genotype 75B. Epichloe endophyte probably maintained oxidative conditions around the roots, and consequently, E+ plants required lower level of flooding-tolerance mechanisms.

Improving seed yield and oil quality of oilseed crops can aid in provision of a nutritious diet for humans. A worldwide collection of linseed was evaluated for seed yield (YLD), seed oil (OIL) and protein content (PRO), oil fatty acid composition, omega-3 to omega-6 ratio (ω3/ω6), total tocopherol content (TTC), and total phenolic content (TPC). At 2 years, higher temperature (~7%) and lower relative humidity (~16.6%) during the seed filling and maturity period (dryer condition) were correlated with significant decreases in YLD (~18%) and OIL (~4.5%), lower contents of linolenic acid (~13%) and TTC (9.8%), and lower ω3/ω6 ratio (~31%); oleic (~9%) and linoleic acid contents (~23%) and TPC (14.4%) increased. Correlation results demonstrated some significant associations among quantitative traits such as YLD, OIL, and thousand seed weight (TSW); however, the association of these traits with qualitative indices was mostly negative. Genotypes were classified irrespective of their geographical origin and independent of seed or flower colour. In this classification, a yellow-seeded Canadian group had the lowest ω3/ω6 ratio (~0.05), the highest seed yield and high TTC, whereas groups with the highest ω3/ω6 ratio (>3.0) had the lowest oil TTC and low to average seed yield. Results suggested that some brown-seeded Asian genotypes with high grain yield and oil potential, higher ω3/ω6 ratio, and other more stable oil quality indices are suitable to develop broadly adaptive varieties under the possible fluctuation of climatic factors. Other genetic groups could also be used for breeding programs with specific objectives.

Plants pretreatment with various chemicals has often been used to diminish salinity stress impact on plants. An experiment was carried out to determine the effect of foliar spray of two commercially available biostimulants (AlgabonWe report for the first time that foliar spray of two commercially biostimulants (Algabon

Regarding to the super-beneficial effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on host plant in response to environmental stresses, there is a great interest for understanding the mechanisms that enable mycorrhizal plant tolerate the stress conditions. In the present study, some physiological and molecular responses induced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Funneliformis fasciculatum in Ni-stressed Lolium perenne were investigated. Since heavy-metal stress is reported to alter the water relations of plant, expression of two aquaporin (AQP)-coding genes (Lptip1;1 and Lptip1;2) were studied as a molecular mechanism which may be involved in Ni-stress tolerance. The results demonstrated a pronounced positive effect of AMF on Lolium growth, water content and photosynthetic pigments content under Ni stress condition, probably through an avoidance strategy which led to the decrease in Ni accumulation in plant tissues as well as decreasing Ni translocation to the shoots. The results also indicated the mycorrhizal-induced expression of both Lptip1;1 and Lptip1;2 genes in plant roots and shoots under Ni stress. Thus, it is concluded that these two genes could be considered as stress-inducible AQP genes.

Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss. is an aromatic medicinal plant that has been traditionally used as an analgesic to treat headaches, backaches, colic, and cold. This study evaluated the yield, physiological, and phytochemical traits of 24 populations for 2 consecutive years under the water stress condition. The seed yield and physiological traits demonstrated the highest values in the first and second year, respectively. Hydrogen peroxide (H

Chelant-assisted phytoextraction has widely been exploited as a feasible option for removing heavy metals from the contaminated soils. Some synthetic chelants have shown promising performances for this option, but they have also revealed several negative environmental consequences. This study has sought to investigate the feasibility of two biodegradable eco-friendly chelants, namely methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA) and N,N-Bis(carboxymethyl)-L-glutamic acid (GLDA), as compared to the resistant ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), in enhancing phytoextraction of Zn and Pb from a contaminated calcareous soil. For this purpose, a greenhouse experiment was carried out comparing the growth and metal absorption of maize (Zea mays L.) grown on soils treated with EDTA, MGDA, and GLDA chelants at 2, 4 and 8 mmol kg(− 1) levels. Results showed that the heavy metal uptakes by the plant shoots generally increased with increasing the chelant application level. Pb uptake by maize shoots increased from 10.6 mg plant(− 1) in control to 416, 398, and 416 mg plant(− 1) in the soils treated with 8 mmol kg(− 1) MGDA, GLDA, and EDTA, respectively. The corresponding increases in Zn uptake were from 100.9 mg plant(− 1) to 798.9, 718.9, and 530.4 mg plant(− 1) in the MGDA-, GLDA-, and EDTA-amended soils, respectively. Moreover, the amounts of water-extractable, and thereby potentially leachable, Pb and Zn in the post-harvest soil were considerably greater in the soil treated with EDTA than those treated with MGDA and GLDA. Therefore, MGDA and GLDA would be potential alternatives to environmentally-persistent EDTA for enhanced metal phytoextraction from contaminated soils.

A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the response of ten potato cultivars to two levels of soil water in terms of contents of total chlorophyll (Chltot), chlorophyll florescence (Fv/Fm), shoot fresh weight (SFW), shoot dry weight (SDW), root fresh weight (RFW), root dry weight (RDW), mean root length (MRL), root length density (RLD), special root length (SRL), root volume (RV), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), peroxidase (POX) and proline content. Plants were grown under two irrigation levels (30 and 80% depletion of available soil water). Greenhouse test plots were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Under control level of irrigation, the maximum and the minimum shoot dry weight were achieved for cultivars Satina (12.7 g/plant) and Sante (4.7 g/plant) and root dry weight for Marfona (2.95 g/plant) and Milva (1.17 g/plant), respectively. SDW and RDW were decreased in all cultivars under 80% depletion of available soil water. Based on the biplot analysis cultivars Agria, Satina and Marfona were hence identified as preferable cultivars for 80% depletion of available soil water conditions. However, this investigate has been able to gather evidence that water deficit increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes and proline content in all tested potato cultivars. Also, our results revealed the pivotal role of proline in response of potato plants to water deficit and biomass production.

In the present study, we used different LEDs to evaluate their effect on metabolic and transcriptional reprogramming of two genotypes (Ilam and Isfahan) of lemon balm grown under narrow-band LED lighting. Lemon balm plants were grown in four incubators equipped with artificial lighting and subjected to four LED lamps [White, Blue, Red, and mixed RB (Red + Blue) (70%:30%)] and in greenhouse conditions for 7 weeks. The results showed significant increases in leaf number, pigment and soluble sugar contents, secondary metabolites, and calcium, magnesium, potassium and amino acid contents achieved in growth under mixed RB LEDs. As observed for the content of total phenolics, rosmarinic acid, and amino acids, the expression of genes involved in their production, including TAT, RAS, and DAHPS were also enhanced due to the mixed RB LED lighting. The best condition for both the plant growth and expression of genes was under the mixture of Red + Blue LED lamps. These observations indicate that the increase in secondary metabolites under mixed Red + Blue lights may be due to the increase in primary metabolites synthesis and the increased expression of genes that play an essential role in the production of secondary metabolites.

Plants pretreatment with various chemicals has often been used to diminish salinity stress impact on plants. An experiment was carried out to determine the effect of foliar spray of two commercially available biostimulants (Algabon® [0.5 g/l] and Bonamid® [2 g/l]) on the growth and tolerance of halophytic grass, Pucccinellia distans under non-salinity condition (NSC) and salinity condition (SC). The greenhouse experiment was set up in a completely randomized design with three treatments repeated three times. Our results showed that biomass, leaf relative water content, chlorophyll content, K+ content, K+/Na+ ratio, and protein and N contents were all negatively affected by 300 mM NaCl. The results obtained in the present study showed the beneficial effects of the pretreatments of two biostimulants on P. distans seedlings under non-salinity stress conditions with respect to increasing plant biomass, photosynthetic pigments, K+ content, the content of proteins, and nitrogen percentage. The results suggested that foliar spray of Bonamid® could partly diminish NaCl-caused stress on P. distans seedlings, probably due to higher accumulation of shoot biomass, photosynthetic pigments, K+/Na+ ratio, protein and N contents, phytoremediation potential, as well as upregulation of Na+/H+ antiporters located in plasma membranes and vacuoles. The highest phytoremediation potential (PP) of shoots and total biomass was detected in the plants sprayed with Bonamid® by 50.8 and 42.7% respectively, relative to that in salinity-stressed control plants. Interestingly, foliar spray with two biostimulants decreased osmoprotectants and antioxidant compounds content of shoots under salinity stress conditions. Collectively, it could be concluded that a noticeable feature of pretreatment of P. distans seedlings with Algabon® and Bonamid® is the increase in growth under NSC, whereas under SC only pretreated plants with amino acid-derived biostimulant (Bonamid®) can (partly) diminish the NaCl-induced deleterious effects in P. distans seedlings through the compartmentalization of salts in vacuoles (by upregulation of Na+/H+ antiporters). We report for the first time that foliar spray of two commercially biostimulants (Algabon® and Bonamid®) could improve growth and phytoremediation potential of halophytic grass, Pucccinellia distans under the subsequent salinity stress. We also illustrated the impact of biostimulants on the mechanisms behind the improvement in tolerance of P. distans to the following salinity in regard to K+/Na+ ratio, protein and N contents, antioxidant capacity, osmoprotectant compounds, and the upregulation of Na+/H+ antiporters located in plasma membranes and vacuoles.

Background: Plants pre-treatment with various chemicals has often been used to diminish salinity stress impact on plants. In the present study, we used foliar spray of two commercially biostimulants (Algabon® and Bomamid®) before the stress, to study interactive effects of biostimulants and salinity stress in halophytic grass, Pucccinellia distans. Results: Our results showed that biomass, leaf relative water content, chlorophyll content, K+ content, K+/Na+ ratio, and protein and N contents were also negatively affected by 300 mM NaCl. The results obtained in the present study showed the beneficial effects of the pre-treatments of two biostimulants on P. distans seedlings under non salinity stress conditions with respect to increasing plant biomass, photosynthetic pigments, K+ content, the content of proteins and nitrogen percentage. The results suggested that foliar spray of Bonamid could considerably diminish NaCl-caused stress on P. distans seedlings, probably due to higher accumulation of shoot biomass, photosynthetic pigments, K+/Na+ ratio, protein and N contents, phytoremediation potential, as well as upregulation of Na+/H+ antiporters located in plasma membranes and vacuoles. Conclusions: Collectively, it could be concluded that, intensification of osmotic adjustment by the accumulation of osmotic metabolites and the compartmentalization of salts in vacuoles in pre-treated plants with amino acid-derived biostimulant (Bonamid) can diminish the NaCl-induced deleterious effects in P. distans seedlings.

Understanding the reproductive system of mint (Mentha spp.) through self or open pollination is critical for its improvement. In this study, fresh and dry weight, essential oil yield, essential oil composition, flavonoid and phenolic contents of 12 mint populations derived from self and open-pollination, plus their parents belonging to two species, were evaluated. The results showed inbreeding depression in self-pollinated populations compared with the parents, for fresh and dry weights and essential oil yield belonging to Mentha longifolia, but in populations belonging to Mentha spicata, fresh weight, dry weight and essential oil yield increased in self and open-pollinated populations, compared with the parents. The possibility of self-pollination and subsequent improvements in offspring may be considered as an existence of some self-compatibility in mint species. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and GC-FID analyses were also performed to determine the essential oil components. Accordingly, 29 compounds were determined including pulegone (0.87–71%), piperitenone (0.94–76.87%), carvone (0.19–52.01%), and limonene (1.19–26.61%) in the genotypes of M. longifolia and M. spicata. The amount of pulegone, as well as limonene and carvone, significantly decreased in some populations derived from self and open pollination while a significant increase in the amount of piperitenone and menthone was found in this condition. Results also showed that the pollination system had no significant effect on phenolic content while self-pollination significantly increased the flavonoid content of Hamedan and Lorestan populations. Self-pollination in mint may be viewed as a useful way to increase genetic homogenicity for the selection of superior plants in breeding programs for pharmaceutical purposes.

The effects of water deficit on the activity of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and peroxidase (POX), and also on total antioxidant capacity, ion leakage, proline content, chlorophyll fluorescence, gas exchange, chlorophyll and carotenoid content and plant dry mass of potato cultivars (Solanum tuberosum L.) were investigated. For this purpose, the response of ten potato cultivars (Agria, Arinda, Marfona, Banba, Born, Sante, Milva, Satina, Jelly and Spirit) was studied under two irrigation regimes (70 and 20% of soil available water). Water deficit increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes, ion leakage and proline content but decreased total antioxidant capacity, Fv/Fm, gas exchanges, chlorophyll, carotenoid and plant dry mass in all potato cultivars. Based on stress tolerance index (STI), Agria and Born were the most tolerant and sensitive cultivars to water stress, respectively. Positive correlations were found between total antioxidant capacity and the activities of CAT, APX and POX under control irrigation. Proline content positively correlated with plant dry mass and negatively with photosynthesis, transpiration and carbon dioxide concentration in the sub-stomatal chamber under water deficit treatment. The highest increases in ion leakage under water deficit were observed in the most sensitive cultivars. The results of this experiment, therefore, showed that proline accumulation and ion leakage may be related to water stress tolerance of potato cultivars. Also, increased chlorophyll and carotenoid content in resistant cultivars supported potato plants to tolerate water deficit.

Two novel mixed-ligand complexes of lead(II), [Pb(Cup)2(Phen)]2](DPE) (1) and [Pb(Cup)(ONO2)(Phen)] (2) (Cup = cupferronato, Phen = 1,10-phenanthroline, and DPE = 1,2-di(4-pyridyl)ethylene), were synthesized in the presence of common bridging ligands which are usually used in synthesis of lead(II) coordination polymers as well as utilization of Cup and Phen as O,O′- and N,N′- chelates, respectively. Structural features of 1 and 2 in solution were investigated by 1H and 13C NMR experiments. The accurate assignment of these signals was inferred from a series of 1H–1H COSY, 1H–13C HSQC, and 1H–13C HMBC spectra. The solid-state structures of 1 and 2 were also investigated via single crystal XRD. By considering the obtained structural parameters, the coordination of 1 is hemidirected while 2 is suggested to be holodirectional. Additionally, complex 1 consist of dimers which are further associated via π-π stacking to a one-dimensional coordination polymer while complex 2 forming a step-like one-dimensional chain by an intermolecular interaction between each molecule and two nitrato groups of the two adjacent molecules. Both complexes showed significant antibacterial and antifungal characteristics in disc diffusion tests and they could be considered as new potent antimicrobial material.

This pot experiment was aimed at characterization of agro-physiological responses of potato to water deficit and exogenously application of salicylic acid (SA) and glycine betaine (GB). Four potato cultivars, Spirit, Born, Arinda and Banba, were exposed to two irrigation regimes (30 and 60% depletion of available soil water) and two levels of both SA (0.5 and 1.0 mM) and GB application (1.0 and 2.0 mM) in addition to the control (0.0 mM SA and GB). Activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), ion leakage (IL), fluorescence chlorophyll (Fv/Fm), chlorophyll pigments, root dry mass (RDM) and plant dry mass (PDM) were measured. Water deficiency resulted in significant effects on all characteristics. Antioxidant enzymes and IL increased, but the other characteristics decreased significantly with water deficit. Tolerant cultivars (Spirit and Born) revealed higher activity of SOD enzyme, chlorophyll content, PDM and lower IL than non-tolerant cultivars (Arinda and Banba). This investigation has been able to provide evidence that SA and GB affected antioxidant enzymes and increased chlorophyll pigments and PDM. The range of the increases seemed greater when potato cultivars were grown under water deficit circumstances. PDM increased by increasing SA and GB levels. This led to the supposition that injurious effects on potato cultivars due to water deficit could be relieved by SA and GB.

Populations derived from intraspecific crosses within two mint species of Mentha spicata and M. longifolia, were studied for genetic and phenotypic coefficients of variation, heritabilities, and genetic advances in various traits including plant height, fresh and dry weights, number of branches per plant, plant canopy diameter, leaf area, and essential oil content and yield. The majority of agro-economic characters showed high heritability (h2) and genetic advances in the F2 generation. The maximum genetic advance and genotypic coefficient of variation were recorded for fresh weight, leaf area, and essential oil content and yield. Based on these traits, total flavonoid (TFC) and phenolic (TPC) contents of the best genotypes from each species of M. longifolia and M. spicata were estimated. The results showed that some of the F2 plants had a higher amount of TFC and TPC compared with the parents. The analysis of essential oil components also revealed that the amount of piperitenone and menthone in M. longifolia and carvone and limonene in M. spicata significantly increased in the selected genotypes derived from intraspecific crosses. It is hypothesized that the improvements in the offspring derived from intraspecific crosses of mint are attributed to transgressive segregation and heterosis. Therefore, crossing within mint species can be effectively utilized for recombination breeding to obtain genotypes with a novel genetic structure potentially usable in breeding programs for pharmaceutical purposes.

Background Nowadays, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a new lighting technology, have been emerged as an alternative source of light for plants due to their wavelength specificity, the narrow width of their bands, small size, solid structure, long lifetime, and low heat generation. Here we investigated the effect of different LED light sources on the essential oil components and antioxidant activity of Melissa officinalis. Two genotypes of lemon balm (Ilam and Isfahan) were subjected to four artificial light treatments, including white, red, blue, red + blue LEDs, and greenhouse light as natural lighting. Results The LED lights significantly increased shoot fresh and dry weights and leaf number in the two genotypes as compared to greenhouse condition. The results showed that the content and composition of essential oil in the two genotypes were variable under different light treatments and the total amount of compounds in the Ilam genotype was higher than the other genotype. The results of analysis of the essential oil by GC/MS indicated that the highest amount of monoterpenes in the genotypes was related to citronellal under red + blue LED lamps (15.3 and 17.2% in Ilam and Isfahan genotypes, respectively) but blue, white, and greenhouse condition had the most effect on sesquiterpenes content in both genotypes. The results showed that the observed variation between the two genotypes in the essentials oil composition was related to the relative percentage of the constituents and not to the appearance or lack of a specific component. Red + blue lighting also provided the highest radical scavenging activity in both genotypes (80.77 and 82.09% for Ilam and Isfahan genotypes, respectively). Based on principal component analyses (PCA), three main groups were identified regarding genotypes and all light treatments. Conclusions Overall, results indicated that the essentials oil composition of two genotypes of lemon balm was affected both qualitatively and quantitatively by different LED light sources; hence, LED lights might be used to improve monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and antioxidant activity in the selected genotypes.

The production of self-pollinated plants could be important for improving medicinal plants secondary metabolites. In this study, 11 Thymus populations from eight species were evaluated to determine the effect of self and open pollination on agro-morphological characteristics, total phenolic content (TPC), essential oil (EO) content, and EO components. Inbreeding led to some positive effects of above mentioned traits in most of the studied populations. Total phenolic content ranged from 7.07 to 52.69 mg tannic acid equivalents (TAE) g-1 dry weight (DW) in open pollinated derived populations, while it varied from 1.2 to 55.03 mg TAE g-1 DW in self-pollinated ones. Under open and self-pollination condition, the highest EO content was obtained in T. trautvetteri (3.37 %) and T. pubescens (1.96 %), respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) identified 42 compounds including thymol, carvacrol, linalool, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol as the main compounds. In most cases, selfed plants compared to open pollinated ones, revealed higher thymol content. T. daenensis-1 showed a significant increase in thymol content (from 25.22 % to 74.3 %) due to self-pollination. Moreover, self-pollination led to emergence of some new compounds. Carvacrol methyl ether was the constituents of Thymus EO that are being reported in self-pollinated populations. Finally, inbreeding in Thymus might be suggested as a useful tool to increase genetic homogeneity for the selection of superior plants for improving secondary metabolite.

Fungal endophytes, by living entire or part of their life inside a plant, are potentially useful in natural ecosystems and agroecosystems to confer multiple benefits to their hosts. These include improvement of water and nutrientional status, higher tolerance against biotic/abiotic stresses. In this review, the consequences of infection by Epichloe spp., as an obligative symbiont, and Serendipita indica, as a facultative one, on plant-soil relations have been discussed. Colonization and infection by both Epichloe and S. indica results in better plant growth and productivity, including enhanced root proliferation by indole-3-acetic acid production which in turn leads to a better nutrient acquisition. Moreover, the symbionts can confer both local and systemic resistances to pathogens/diseases through signal transduction. Up-regulation of antioxidant defense system components and reprogramming of stress-related genes in the presence of endophytic fungus can enhance plant resistance against biotic/abiotic stresses. Individual mechanical or drought stresses may impair plant growth and functioning; however, under combined mechanical and drought stresses, drought has little impact on the plant responses and mechanical stress mainly controls physiological attributes including water status and leaf proline. Endophyte-infected hosts usually have higher ability to do osmotic adjustment due to higher proline content. The physical, chemical and biological properties of rhizosphere soil might be changed by the endophyte infection too, presumably resulted in improving soil quality. Altering microbial communication structure and diversity, higher organic carbon storage, enhanced soil fertility and increased aggregate stability due to induced sub-critical hydrophobicity are some important influences of endophyte-host symbiotic relations on soil environment.

Linum usitatissimum L. (common flax) is one of the oldest domesticated plants. Flax and linseed are terms used to reference this crop. Flax has an average genome size of ca 750 Mb with a genetic potential estimated to encode ca 43,000 genes. It is self-pollinated, diploid, and with a relatively small genome recently released which are key features which make flax an ideal crop for breeding and genetic studies. Its popularity rose again in recent decades since it was defined as a functional food. Indeed, its seed is a rich source of oil particularly rich in omega 3 and lignans. Flax is highly adaptable to modern molecular genetic engineering techniques. Future developments in flax genomic studies would greatly benefit from reduced sequencing costs and new approaches. Many important gene targets involved in key processes, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) and secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) biosynthesis during seed development, have been established through transcriptome analysis. The transcriptomic analysis of the development of flax seed is still underdeveloped, however, and this could contribute to a thorough understanding of the crop’s health-modulating effects. The protein content in flaxseed has been reported to range from 10.5% to 31%. The major seed storage proteins include albumins, globulins, and prolamins. Flax seed contains in particular two lectin groups with different localization and physiological functions that may participate in specific adaptation of flax plants to various abiotic stress factors.

Plants and their accompanying microorganisms growing in contaminated sites with long-lived gamma-emitting radionuclides may be affected by radiation stress. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of gamma radiation on symbiotic relationship between Epichloe endophyte and Festuca arundinacea plant along with the radio-sensitivity of a pair of clones of tall fescue with (E+) and without (E−) symbiotic Epichloe endophyte exposed to different doses of gamma radiation including 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 300, and 400 Gray (Gy) from a Cobalt-60 source. Both irradiated and non-irradiated seeds of each status were grown under controlled conditions. Seed germination indices, seedling growth and certain physiological criteria associated with plant responses to oxidative stress were examined. The results revealed that low doses (up to 75 Gy) of gamma radiation stimulated seed germination indices and seedling growth. However, high doses (100–400 Gy) significantly reduced the final germination percentage, germination rate index, coefficient of velocity of germination, and the seed reserve depletion percentage, and enhanced the mean germination time. Further, high doses of radiation reduced root and shoot lengths, root and shoot fresh weights, and activities of antioxidant enzymes (especially catalase and superoxide dismutase), and increased the content of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) of the seedlings. The results showed that the endophyte was present in seeds after gamma ray irradiation. However, the presence of endophyte in seedlings started to be reduced significantly (18.45% reduction rather than the control) at 50 Gy of gamma radiation. High doses (100 Gy and above) dramatically declined the presence of endophyte down to zero in seedlings compared to the control. In this study, the E− clone had higher seed germination and seedling growth as well as lower H2O2 and MDA contents under radiation stress as compared with the E+ clone. Additionally, shoot tolerance index (STI) indicated more radiation tolerance in the E− clone. According to the results of the present study, it is concluded that biological impacts of gamma radiation stress and the harmful effects on endophyte viability may cause more radio-sensitivity and changes in the growth and physio-biochemical aspects of the host plant.

This experiment aimed to investigate the status of tomato plants in terms of sink or source-limitation of 2 cultivars of greenhouse tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), i.e., ‘Grandella’ and ‘Isabella’ under the greenhouse conditions of Iran and to improve the yield and plant growth by manipulating the sink-source balance. To this end, 4 treatments were applied: leaves were not pruned and fruits were pruned to one per truss (1F/3L), leaves were not pruned and fruits were pruned to two per truss (2F/3L), leaves were not pruned and fruits were pruned to three per truss (3F/3L) and no leaf and fruit pruning (control). The results showed that truss pruning reduced the sink demand and consequently, increased the amount of available assimilate for the growth of the remaining fruits or vegetative parts. The negative correlation between the leaf area index and the net assimilation rate and no significant difference in the net assimilation rate between different sink/source ratios showed that the excess leaf area index does not contribute in increasing the assimilate production and hence, total yield. Total fruit weight, harvest index, and the ratio of the ripe fruits to the total fruit led to the highest yield for control plants. No changes in chlorophyll, protein content and nitrate reductase activity were the evidence for the fact that sink/source ratio do not affect light-harvesting and light-utilizing components of photosynthesis. Since the individual weight of fruits increased with decreasing fruit number per trusses, the growth of individual fruits in both cultivars was source-limited and truss pruning can decrease this limitation. Future studies should be carried out to determine the best level of sink/source ratio that in addition to producing an acceptable amount of yield, meets the needs of consumers in the current stressful world by increasing the antioxidant and nutriceutical content of fruits.

Relationships amongst solvent retention capacity (SRC) profiles and quality characteristics of triticale cultivars were investigated. Superior triticale grains resulted into flours with preferable quality attributes for baking bread. Standard and supplementary SRC-values exhibited significant correlation with grain, flour, and dough quality. Positive correlations among sucrose-SRC with ash, pentosan, and ferulic acid (FA) contents were significant. The standard SRC-profiles along with metabisulfite-SRC (MBS-SRC) and ethanol-SRC exhibited significant correlation with damaged starch (DS) content. The ethanol-SRC demonstrated strong correlations with water absorption capacity, FA, and Dmax-value alveolab parameter. Triticale flours containing a higher amount of anti-parallel β-sheets and tyrosine exhibited higher lactic acid-SRC (LA-SRC) and gluten-performance-index (GPI). Positive correlations between sodium dodecylsulphate-SRC (SDS-SRC) and anti-parallel β-sheets percentages were noticed. The LA-SRC, GPI, MBS-SRC, SDS-SRC, and SDS+MBS-SRC were positively correlated with SDS-sedimentation, gluten index and negatively to sulfhydryl-groups content. Triticales having higher LA-SRC and MBS-SRC resulted in dough with higher strength and tenacity.

In the present study, the diversity of 11 Thymus species was assessed using molecular and morphological markers. Essential oil content and morphological traits were also investigated during two agronomic years. The result of the analysis of variance showed considerable differences among morphological traits. In the first and second years, the essential oil content of the species varied from 0.63 to 1.94% and 0.86 to 2.34%, respectively. T. vulgaris and T. migricus showed the highest essential oil content in two agronomic years. In this research, nine ISSR primers were also used to amplify 151 polymorphic bands in 77 accessions belonging to 11 Thymus species. Cluster and principal component (PCA) analyses classified the species in three major groups. Among the species, T. vulgaris and T. fedtschenkoi presented relatively higher genetic distance in comparison with other species. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed that 72.34% of the total variation was belonged to within-species variation, while 27.66% was associated among the species. High gene flow (Nm = 1.11) and genetic differentiation (Gst = 0.31) were also observed among the species. T. transcaspicus exhibited the highest genetic variation (0.19), polymorphism % (57.69%), and Shannon index (0.29). The STRUCTURE analysis also showed a high admixture of Thymus species that might be originated from a high rate of natural hybridization. Finally, based on molecular and morphological information, T. vulgaris and T. carmanicus can be suggested as good candidate species for further breeding programs in Thymus species.

Mentha is one of the most important genera of the Lamiaceae with a wide geographical distribution and considerable commercial importance. The general aim of this work was to group 34 accessions from four species of mint using ISSR molecular markers to select some accessions to estimate the potential cross-ability of mints valuable in breeding and phytochemical research. The reproductive characteristics including the type of flower, petal color, sepal and petal lengths, length of stamen and pistil as well as the number of free and living pollen grains in the anther were also studied to find out cross-ability patterns and the possible reproductive barriers. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) among and within species showed more intra-specific variation (92.24%) in comparison with inter-species variation (7.76%). Results of cluster analysis based on ISSR data grouped the mint genotypes into five clusters. By this, the greatest genetic similarity was found between Ms12 from M. spicata and Ml29 from M. longifolia. The genotype Ms12 along with Ms22, the other genotype from M. spicata, were found to be male sterile due to stopped stamen development. These two had higher combining ability (seed set) when used as the female parent in intra-specific crosses and when crossed with M. longifolia compared to the other genotypes in diallel crosses. The highest number of hybrid seeds was obtained where Ml29 was crossed as the male parent with male sterile Ms12 as the female one. This high success rate of seed set in interspecific crosses between M. spicata and M. longifolia could be related to their genomic similarity confirmed by ISSR molecular data. Therefore, producing hybrid seeds and subsequent generations from crosses between these species, utilizing male sterility mechanism, can be a source of new genetic variation for mint.

Perovskia species are considered as valuable ornamental plants. In the present study, the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants were evaluated in P. atriplicifolia, and P. abrotanoides in response to water deficit stress. The root harvesting was performed after 0, 3, 5, 7, and 9 days exposure to stress. In both species, total phenolics content, total flavonoids, enzymatic antioxidant activities, total tanshinones, tanshinone IIA, cryptotanshinone, hydroxy-cryptotanshinone, and proline substantially increased with the severity of stress. In the current study, the variations in tanshinone profile and the expression of genes (DXS1, HMGR, KSL) related to tanshinones biosynthesis were also investigated. The results revealed the negative trend between the concentration of malondialdehyde, and hydrogen peroxide as well as the harmonized augmentation in activities of enzymatic antioxidants including guaiacol peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase, exclusively on 7th day of stress. The expression ratios of all studied genes were markedly induced by the drought stress. The content of major oxidative stress-related indicators suggested that P. atriplicifolia should be better pre-adapted to water deficit physiological tolerance than P. abrotanoides. Finally, the experimental results can provide further insight into differential responses to imposed water-limited stress along with choice of the optimal eustress treatment to obtain the desired composition of pharmacologically useful diterpenoids.

Distichlis spicata and Suaeda aegyptiaca are two potential halophytic plant species for bioremediation of salt degraded soils, and development of saline agriculture. The physiological responses of the species to different levels of salinity (EC 0, 12, 24, 36, and 48 dS/m) in a controlled environment experiment were studied. Both species showed a high level of tolerance to elevated concentrations of salt in the irrigation water. The shoot fresh and dry weights in S. aegyptiaca increased till 36 dS/m and were sustained under 48 dS/m while in D. spicata, both parameters decreased as salinity increased. Glycine betaine accumulation did not change in D. spicata with increasing salinity, whereas proline content revealed a marked increase of 7.13 fold in 48 dS/m salinity compared to the control, which showed its critical osmoprotection role in the plant. In S. aegyptiaca, both osmolytes content significantly increased at high salinity levels (36 and 48 dS/m) up to 3.22 and 2.0 folds, respectively. Overall, S. aegyptiaca had a better potential of Na+ phytoremediation, and tolerated higher salinity compared to D. spicata. In contrast, the vigorous root and rhizome growth in D. spicata made it a proper solution for protecting the soils against further erosion under saline conditions.

Two novel tetra-coordinated Cobalt(II) and Zinc (II) chelate series with the general formula of [Co (L)·2H2O] (1) and [Zn (L)] (2) [L = N-2-hydroxyacetophenon-N′-2-hydroxynaphthaldehyde-1,2 phenylenediimine)] with biologically active Schiff base ligands were synthesized and recognized by elemental analysis and multi-nuclear spectroscopy (IR and 1H and 13C NMR); then, their biological activities including DNA and protein interactions were studied. The interaction of the synthesized compounds with bovine serum albumin (BSA) was investigated via fluorescence spectroscopy, showing the affinity of the complexes for these proteins with relatively high binding constant values and the changed secondary BSA structure in the presence of the complexes. The interaction of these compounds with CT-DNA was considered by UV–Vis technique, emission titration, viscosity measurements, helix melting methods, and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, confirming that the complexes were bound to CT-DNA by the intercalation binding mode. Furthermore, the complexes had the capability to displace the DNA-bound MB, as shown by the competitive studies of these complexes with methylene blue (MB), thereby suggesting the intercalation mode for the competition. Finally, the theoretical studies carried out by the docking method were performed to calculate the binding constants and recognize the binding site of the BSA and DNA by the complexes. In addition, in vitro and in silico studies showed that the compounds were degradable by bacterial and fungal biodegradation activities.

In order to understand the physiological traits important in conferring salt tolerance in three barley genotypes, this study was performed under field conditions with three water salinity levels (2, 10, and 18 dS m–1). High salinity decreased net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance, K+ concentration, K+:Na+ ratio, and grain yield, but increased electrolyte leakage and Na+ content. Under 10 and 18 dS m–1 salinity, Khatam (salt-tolerant) had the maximum stomatal conductance, K+, K+:Na+ ratio, and the grain yield, and a minimum Na+ content and electrolyte leakage, whereas Morocco (salt-sensitive) had the lowest net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, K+ content, K+:Na+ ratio, and grain yield, and the highest Na+ content and electrolyte leakage. This study showed that tolerant genotypes of barley may avoid Na+ accumulation in aboveground parts, facilitating a higher photosynthetic rate and higher grain yield.

Production of shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes [Berk.] Pegl.) is affected by growing media quality and cost. This makes it necessary to incorporate new materials into the growth substrate to improve mushroom yield and nutritional quality while reducing cost. The effects of supplementing the mushroom substrate with wheat-milling residue (WMR), a nutritionally rich and low-cost waste, at ratios of 50, 75, or 100% of the total supplement portion, in the substrate on modified substrates and shiitake mushroom’s minerals content and biochemical properties were investigated. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results showed significant interaction between harvest and substrate modifications on yield parameters. Yield, biological efficiency (BE), and carpophore quality increased under all treatments, with the highest values at 75% supplement with WMR. The contents of K, P, Mg, Zn, Mn, Fe, and Cu in mushrooms increased. The Zn, P, and Cu increases were 2.13, 3.09, and 4.00 times greater, respectively, in trea...

The Apiaceae family includes many valuable medicinal species. The Phenyl propanoid pathway is a source of many of critical secondary metabolites. Hence, the identification of involved genes will improve a better understanding of their medicinal properties. The purpose of this research was to obtain a genomic DNA sequence of two important genes including phenylalanine ammonia lyase 2 (pal2) and chalcone synthase (chs) in some Iranian endemic species of Apiaceae viz. Dorema aucheri, Ferula assa-foetida, Prangos ferulaceae, Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff., Ferulago angulata, Heracleum persicum, and Ducrosia anethifolia. For this purpose, conserved regions of each gene were sequenced. Multiple alignments revealed that studied sequences shared a high degree of similarity based on genes pal2 (78%) and chs (66.9%). The results from the neighbor-joining analysis produced different topologies with moderately to high support. The genera of Ferula and Dorema were the closest, while Ferulago and Ducrosia possessed a greater genetic distance to each other based on the pal2 gene. Moreover, the two genera (Ferulago and Prangos) were grouped based on genes pal2 and chs. The NJ analysis revealed that the four Apiaceae genera did not form a monophyletic group based on the chs gene, which showed a higher level of diversity in the chs family alongside the expansion of Apiaceae. Partial-length genomic DNA sequence of these genes helped realize their evolutionary relationships and led to a better understanding of antioxidant and medicinal properties.