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Equality of development opportunities is one of the socio-economic goals and a basic prerequisite for achieving economic stability and integrated progress in a country. In the present research, 69 development indicators related to cultural-social, educational, infrastructure, health-treatment, environmental and economic sectors were analyzed to identify and compare the development opportunities of 30 provinces of Iran. Shannon's entropy method was used to determine the weights of the indicators and the TOPSIS method was used to rank the provinces in terms of access to the opportunities of each sector. Finally, by using the taxonomy technique, the degree of enjoyment of the provinces from a total of six opportunities was evaluated. The results show that there is a deep gap in the distribution and allocation of facilities and opportunities among the provinces of the country. Tehran province was the most privileged and Kurdistan, South Khorasan, Lorestan, West Azerbaijan and North Khorasan provinces were determined as the most deprived provinces. Based on significant difference among provinces, it is recommended that the priorities of the budget allocation be determined according to the degrees of benefits for the provinces. IntroductionThe growth and development of regions is condemned to be asynchronous; unequal and unbalanced development of different regions is one of the main challenges in most countries and economics. Due to many geographical, demographic and economic factors, Iran is prone to all kinds of regional inequalities and imbalances and is by no means an exception. The lack of balance among the provinces of a country can cause many harms, including damage to national unity, income gap, and limited areas enjoying the desired level of development and intensifying deprivation in other areas, immigration, geographic density, poverty, injustice and finally stopping development in all dimensions. The basic question that regional economic theorists try to answer is why some regions are more developed and growing faster than others and some are declining. In response to this controversial question, it is necessary to mention that the regional difference can be seen as a clear manifestation of the lack of equal access to opportunities, because inequalities are largely rooted in unequal opportunities. Therefore, the way of allocating resources and opportunities in societies is one of the important factors determining the distribution pattern of their growth and development. Methods and materialThe purpose of this study is to investigate, identify and analyze the situation of Iran provinces in terms of development opportunities during the period of 2006-2019. For this purpose, it is tried to calculate the index of development opportunities by using a comprehensive set of development indicators that are closely related to equal opportunities and also we use multi-criteria decision-making method, and then the provinces of Iran according to the degree of prosperity are ranked and classified. We also combine the sub-indices to make one-dimensional indices, by using TOPSIS technique with weighted entropy for six main indices; These indicators are: 1. Socio-cultural dimension, 2. Economic dimension, 3. Health-treatment dimension, 4. Infrastructural dimension, 5. Educational dimension and 6. Environmental dimension. Then, by using Taxonomy method, we combine six indices, to separate and grade provinces into five homogeneous groups based on the level of access to development opportunities.The statistical population includes all provinces of Iran (thirty provinces including Alborz province in Tehran province). The data has been extracted from the most important database of the country, namely the portal of the Statistical Center of Iran, while the time period has been limited according to the availability of provincial data. Results and DiscussionThe findings of the research show that Tehran province has the highest development opportunities among the provinces of the country. This province ranks first in the ranking of provinces in terms of educational, health, economic and cultural-social indicators, third in infrastructure and sixth in environmental indicators. Meanwhile, the seventeen provinces of Iran including Hamedan, Markazi, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Yazd, Golestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, Zanjan, Kermanshah, Ardabil, Ilam, Kerman, Sistan and Baluchistan, Kurdistan, South Khorasan, Lorestan, West Azerbaijan and North Khorasan has been placed in the category of underprivileged or very underprivileged provinces in terms of development opportunities gains.It seems that advantages such as access to appropriate infrastructure like communication, physical and information networks, commercial services, proximity to skilled labor markets and competitive enterprises, as well as the ability to access research institutions have a great role in Tehran province situation compared to other provinces. ConclusionThe results showed that the hypothesis of uneven distribution of various facilities and services among the provinces of the country is confirmed, In other words, there are significant differences among the different provinces of the country in terms of development opportunities. Therefore, it is suggested to policy makers and planners to pay attention to the research done on regional opportunities and in their policies and orientations, and in addition to national approaches, consider regional development approaches by prioritizing provinces based on the degree of development and the level of prosperity, in the framework of planning based on land use. It is also suggested that in future studies, considering the scope of the concept of development opportunities and the quantitative and qualitative indicators of this category, these indicators be extended further so that more useful information is available to planners and policy makers in order to eliminate imbalances.

Previous studies ignore the geospatial dynamics effects between renewable energy (RE) and CO2 while assessing such impacts in European countries. Further, most studies wrongfully use RE in its aggregated format rather than decomposing RE by its components. This is important as not all the RE sources share the same characteristics. We fill these gaps in the literature by investigating the effects of various forms of RE on CO2 emissions in 36 European countries from 2000 to 2018. Spatial econometric models have been used to better understand the results. A series of indicative tests confirmed the use of the Durbin panel model and the inclusion of spatial interaction of CO2 emissions in models. Our results confirm the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis in our sample. We identify a positive and significant effect of economic growth (captured through GDP per capita), foreign direct investment, urbanization, and energy intensity on CO2 emissions. Our findings indicate that increasing well-established RE technologies such as geothermal and hydropower lower CO2 emissions. However, increasing RE sources with more advanced technologies such as solar, wind, and bioenergy either increase or have no impact on CO2 emissions. Increasing RE sources as a whole result in a reduction of CO2 emissions in our sample of countries. Moreover, our spatial models suggest that foreign direct investment lowers local CO2 emissions, while neighboring countries’ energy intensity and trade openness increase local CO2 emissions. Lastly, we find solar and bioenergy generation in adjacent countries increase local CO2 emissions, whilst geothermal generation in adjacent countries lowers local CO2 marginally.

Poverty is one of the major problems of human societies that causes many social harms. Therefore, policymakers and economic development planners always aim to eliminate it. In addition, economic growth is one of the important and influential variables of macroeconomics. Therefore, examining the impact of economic growth on poverty through the lens of growth and distribution effects offers valuable insights for policymaking and poverty reduction strategies. In this study, we use the log-normal curve approach introduced by Bourguignon to estimate the growth effect on poverty utilizing data from urban households in Iran over the period 2013-2019. The results indicate that only in the one-year period of 2015-2016, the triangle of poverty, growth, and inequality has worked well and the growth has been pro-poor. Furthermore, provincial-level findings unveil discernible patterns: (a) In provinces experiencing positive growth, urban areas in Qom exhibit pro-poor growth, while those in Alborz, Golestan, and Hamedan provinces observe a trickle-down effect. Meanwhile, in other provinces, growth demonstrates an immiserizing trend. (b) In provinces with negative growth, only urban areas in Markazi province observe a reduction in poverty. However, due to the lack of growth, it cannot be concluded that this province has had pro-poor growth. In the urban areas of other provinces in this group, the situation has been unfavourable for the poor.

Objective: Poverty is one of the most important social problems that have been always affected the lives of many people, so eliminating this problem is always among the goals of social development. Despite the many efforts that have been made throughout history to eliminate this phenomenon, it has existed for many years and among different countries and continues despite economic growth among underdeveloped or developing countries. In the economics literatures, several factors are effective in creating and spreading poverty, one of which can be considered the exchange rate, which is considered as a key and important economic variable in policy-making. In recent years, the real exchange rate has fluctuated in recent years, and it is important to know its effects on economic policy- making. So, one cannot overlook the significant impact of the exchange rate on poverty. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to try to find out what the asymmetric effects of the exchange rate will be on poverty. Methods: The research variables include poverty index, the real exchange rate and government support. To study the subject, have been used the latest data of the Iran during the period of 1985 to 2018. In this research, a dynamic panel threshold model is investigated to distinguish the asymmetric effects of real exchange rates on poverty. This approach combines time series models with threshold modeling approaches. In this paper, using NARDL, an attempt is made to investigate the positive and negative asymmetric effects of exchange rates on poverty in the Iranian economy using a nonlinear model. Results: The results show that long term exchange rate impacts on poverty in Iran. In the short run, with a period of delay, exchange rate fluctuations increase poverty in Iran, and real exchange rate declines have no effect on poverty reduction. Also government assistance to the poor and low- income groups in the long and short run has not reduced poverty in the country. Conclusion: The results show that in both the short and long term, only an increase in the exchange rate will have a devastating effect on poverty and its impact is greater in the long term than in the short term. And in the short and long term, the depreciation of the real exchange rate has no effect on the reduction of poverty, so governments must implement policies that do not cause sharp fluctuations in the real exchange rate, especially in the event of an increase. The possibility of monetary and fiscal policies should be determined in such a way as to minimize exchange rate fluctuations. In addition, although the exchange rate is not a choice for policymakers, if faced with these conditions, the negative effects of an increase in the exchange rate can be mitigated by government support for the poor through transfer payments and indirect payments to vulnerable groups.

Objective: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of green tax policy implementation on co2 emissions with emphasis on renewable energy usage development by using the GMM method, and during 2002 to 2017 period in Iran. One of the major challenges facing governments in 21st century is environmental crises, and this challenge is one of the major problems in Iran’s future because of its technological and ecological situation. The macroeconomic policies can make changes in environmental performance of the system and fiscal policies including taxes are one of the major macroeconomic policies. The green tax in the new tax terminology and it is considered as an effective and efficient foundation for pollution control. This type of tax is based on cost, reduced pollution and promote efficiency in economy. Another important strategy for controlling and reducing pollution is the use of renewable energy sources. Methods: In this research, to study the subject, we use the Central Bank, Statistic Center of Iran and energy balance sheet data bases during the period 2002 to 2017, and also panel data model and generalized method of movement (GMM) have been used. This method is a powerful estimator that, unlike the maximum likelihood method, does not require accurate information on the distribution of error terms and also, this method, which is used in dynamic aggregate data, is based on the assumption that equation error terms are uncorrelated with a set of instrumental variables. Results: According to the research findings, the relationship between green taxes and emissions is negative for the studied provinces. Also, the production and consumption of renewable energy has the reverse effect on the emission of pollutants. In other words, the use of these energies reduces the emission of pollutants. In addition, with increasing fossil energy consumption and human development, the amount of CO2 emissions increases. Finally, the inverse relationship between the degree of industrialization and the emission of pollutants indicates that a major part of the pollution is caused by the transport and services sector and in fact, the presence of old technologies in this sector has led to an increase in the daily emission of pollutants. Conclusion: The results indicate that the implementation of green tax policy has an effect on reducing the emission of environmental pollutants. Due to the increasing number of environmental pollutants, it is very important to pay attention to the definition and implementation of tax policies in the form of green taxes. Therefore, the central government and local governments in the provinces should make efforts to implement these policies. Also, the production and consumption of renewable energy has the opposite effect on the emission of environmental pollutants. In other words, developing and replacing the consumption of these energies with fossil fuels can reduce the emission of pollutants.

In this research, data from 36 countries from 2013 to 2018 were used to examine the factors influencing CO2 emissions in Islamic countries, focusing on the impact of Islamic financial growth. The spatial econometric technique estimation findings indicate that there is no geographical association between CO2 emissions in the analyzed countries. The test findings establish the existence of the Kuznets hypothesis for the environment. Additionally, trade openness and increased energy usage have resulted in an increase in CO2 emissions. The impacts of traditional financial development factors, such as financial market and financial institution variables, were examined in this research. The findings indicate that the two variables have no direct and substantial influence on CO2 emissions and that their significant effect on CO2 emissions appears only when their nonlinear and spillover effects on energy consumption and economic growth are included. Additionally, the growth of financial institutions is inversely proportional to the intensity of carbon emissions. The results indicate that while the development of financial markets and institutions results in a significant increase in CO2 emissions, the negative coefficient of the interaction between financial development and energy consumption indicates that financial development ensures energy efficiency, which reduces the intensity of carbon emissions. The findings indicate that the expansion and depth of Islamic finance, as measured by total assets, asset quality, earnings, and efficiency of Islamic banks, can result in a nonlinear increase in CO2 emissions with a U-shaped relationship. The study of spillover effects demonstrates that in addition to their direct and positive effects on CO2 emissions, the increase in Islamic social responsibility and consumer education, and awareness about Islamic banking reduce the enhancing effects of energy consumption on greenhouse gas emissions.

Objective: Financial markets, by reducing transaction costs and information asymmetries in the economy, will increase returns, capital accumulation and economic growth. Although the growth of financial markets has a decisive role in economic growth, it should be noted that the emergence of a crisis in financial markets can, in turn, lead to an economic decline and, in some circumstances, lead to a recession. One of the warning signs of financial crisis is an increase in stress that is taking place in financial markets, and leading to increased uncertainty and instability in the economy. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to calculate the financial stress index in Iran's financial markets and then determine its effects on economic growth. Methods: In this study, firstly, using seasonal data of various financial markets including the banking sector, stock market and foreign exchange market, a composite indicator of financial stress for the Iranian economy during the period 1991- 2017 using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and then the effects of this index on economic growth have been evaluated using Markov switching Autoregressive method. Financial stress is recognized as an intermediary channel between shocks and the emergence of financial crises in the economy. Results: The results of the model’s estimation show that Iran's economy has suffered negative financial stress over the course of 13 years, which has led to a decrease in the instability of economic growth and has had a positive financial stress during 9 years, which has led to an increase in economic growth in the country. Of course, the sustainability of years of recession and negative financial stress have been more positive than the years of financial flourishing and financial stress, so that the overall effect of financial stress on economic growth was negative and significant. Conclusion: It can be said that one of the reasons for financial stresses and consequently financial crises is the market’s orientation in the financial structure of the country.

Human societies have experienced three basic revolutions namely the agricultural, industrial and knowledge-based economic revolutions in modern socio-economic era. During those revolutions not only economic structure but also social and cultural structures have evolved. During the last two decades, the third revolution or knowledge-based economy has started. An era in which application of knowledge is the most important factor of production and it is a driving force behind industrial and economic progress more than any other factors .Given the present conditions and their profound changes, governments have prompted special measures in order to fulfill the prediction of their development. The process of development in this era depends on the right choice of leading knowledge and precise and systematic planning for pioneering it. In order to advance these measures, in addition to knowing the leading knowledge, selection criteria should also be analyzed. This paper utilized the descriptive-analytical approach to explain the subject, only from the economic point of view, and data collection was conducted using the existing documents and evidence, such as articles, books, credible websites, etc. The findings of this research indicated that the four basic criteria for an accurate and systematic selection include the capacity to create added value, the capacity to cluster, the possibility of infrastructure, and the capacity to create sustainable employment opportunities which are all discussed in details in this paper.

The electric sector is one of the main emitters of greenhouse gases that lead to exacerbating global warming. There is a lack of consensus in the literature regarding renewable energy (RE) determinants and their impacts on the power sector. Using a panel fully modified OLS model, we examine the effect of research and development, the human development index, technological innovation, and other factors on the share of RE sources in electricity generation in six Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member countries from 2000 to 2018. We find that research and development, the human development index, and technological innovation have different effects on different RE sources. The human development index and research and development, for example, modify the composition of RE by shifting resources from conventional RE sources such as hydropower to newer, more technology-intensive ones such as solar, wind, and bioenergy sources. Our findings show that technological innovation, captured by a number of patent filings, has nonsignificant effects on RE sources deployment. Population growth and energy consumption increase the adoption of more advanced RE sources, and higher levels of CO2 emissions are associated with more deployment of solar and wind technologies but less adoption of hydropower and geothermal energy. Our results provide fresh insights for policymakers enacting RE policies worldwide, especially in the ASEAN region.

The labor income share is constant under the assumptions of a Cobb-Douglas production function and perfect competition. This paper modifies these assumptions, and investigates how to behave actually dynamic the labor income share within the Iranian manufacturing industries through estimating the elasticity of substitution between capital and labor and the price markup. This paper estimates such elasticity by using of a CES production function under perfect and imperfect competition in the product market. The degree of imperfect competition is measured following the Rojer approach. This dynamism in labor income share is explained by (1) a non-unitary elasticity of substitution between capital and labor; and (2) non-perfect competition in the product market. The results show that the elasticity of substitution is 0.75 under perfect competition without price markup, but it is 0.65 under imperfect competition with price markup. These mean that the elasticity of substitution decreases due to the presence of the price markup in imperfect competition regime, while labor income share increases highly by increase in capital intensity.

This research examines business-cycle fluctuations by using Knowledge-based Economy Index (KEI). Data have been collected using consolidated method in 116 countries over the period 1990 -2012. Impact of business cycles' fluctuations has been studied according to the level of the countries' economic knowledge. In this classification, countries were divided to three categories: high, medium and low knowledge-based economies. The generalized method of moments (GMM) and system of simultaneous equations were used to estimate the models, and differential equations were applied for interpreting the results. The findings are described in three parts: top countries with high KEI scores experience decreasing and damped business cycle fluctuations. Those oscillations are convergent, and knowledge-based supply and demand in these countries are proportional. The countries with medium KEI scores have stable and iterative business cycle fluctuations, their movements are nearly convergent, and supply and demand are almost knowledge-based. The countries with low KEI scores are capable of instable and very high business cycle oscillations, and there is knowledge-based demand in these countries, but there is no appropriate supply with it, which results in divergent movements in business cycles.

Electricity energy as a production factor due to natural and clean efficiency, plays effective role in the sustainable growth and development each country. This study investigates the effect of electricity consumption on economic growth in provinces of the country and during the period 2004-2016. To achieve this goal is used of panel cointegration analysis and Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS), Dynamic Least Squares (DOLS) and Pooled Mean Group (PMG) and Mean Group (MG) are used to estimate long-term coefficients and to determine the short and long term causality relationship, are used Panel Vector Error Correction Model (VECM). The empirical results indicate a significant effect of electricity consumption on economic growth in provinces of the country in all estimated models. Also, in models have been used the variables of labor force, investment, urbanization rate and literacy rate and their results indicate that there are positive and significant effects on economic growth. Also results of panel causality test shows that there is a bilateral relationship and long-term of electricity consumption to economic growth and vice versa. In addition, patterns results without regard to the Tehran indicate that this has dominant role in increasing electricity consumption.

Development of financial markets and financial instruments is one of the pillars of economic growth and capital accumulation in any countries especially in the developing ones. Capital market works as a substantial tool for development and financing which attracts many investors for purchasing and selling capital. Hence they are seeking for forecasting events and situations of future till can invest with a lower uncertainty. On the other hand total index of stock exchanges accounted for a precursor one in economics which we expect following improvement in index of capital market, the economic growth will improve and we face condition of recession after its decrease. Thus the importance of exact prediction of this index is redoubled. In this paper we forecast the index by applying ARIMA and Neural Network and then we achieve the minimum and maximum of total index by using FARIMA. Indeed the main aim of this research is to imply this point that these three methods are complementary to each other in decision making of investors and economic policy makers.