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Increasing reports of resistance to a frontline malaria blood-stage treatment, chloroquine (CQ), raises concerns for the elimination of Plasmodium vivax. The absence of an effective molecular marker of CQ resistance in P. vivax greatly constrains surveillance of this emerging threat. A recent genetic cross between CQ sensitive (CQS) and CQ resistant (CQR) NIH-1993 strains of P. vivax linked a moderate CQR phenotype with two candidate markers in P. vivax CQ resistance transporter gene ( pvcrt-o ): MS334 and In9 pvcrt . Longer TGAAGH motif lengths at MS334 were associated with CQ resistance, as were shorter motifs at the In9 pvcrt locus. In this study, high-grade CQR clinical isolates of P. vivax from a low endemic setting in Malaysia were used to investigate the association between the MS334 and In9 pvcrt variants and treatment efficacy. Among a total of 49 independent monoclonal P. vivax isolates assessed, high-quality MS334 and In9 pvcrt sequences could be derived from 30 (61%) and 23 (47%), respectively. Five MS334 and six In9 pvcrt alleles were observed, with allele frequencies ranging from 2 to 76% and 3 to 71%, respectively. None of the clinical isolates had the same variant as the NIH-1993 CQR strain, and none of the variants were associated with CQ treatment failure (all P >  0.05). Multi-locus genotypes (MLGs) at 9 neutral microsatellites revealed a predominant P. vivax strain (MLG6) accounting for 52% of Day 0 infections. The MLG6 strain comprised equal proportions of CQS and CQR infections. Our study reveals complexity in the genetic basis of CQ resistance in the Malaysian P. vivax pre-elimination setting and suggests that the proposed pvcrt-o MS334 and In9 pvcrt markers are not reliable markers of CQ treatment efficacy in this setting. Further studies are needed in other endemic settings, applying hypothesis-free genome-wide approaches, and functional approaches to understand the biological impact of the TGAAGH repeats linked to CQ response in a cross are warranted to comprehend and track CQR P. vivax.

The development of genetic manipulation of Plasmodium falciparum in the 1980s was key to study malaria biology. Genetically modified parasites have been used to study several aspects of the disease, such as red blood cell invasion, drug resistance mechanisms, gametocyte development and mosquito transmission. However, biological and genetic differences between P. falciparum and the other human malaria parasites make P. falciparum a poor model to study different species. The lack of robust systems of long-term in vitro culture of P. vivax and the other human malaria parasites lagged the genetic manipulation of these species. Here we review the efforts to generate genetically modified non- falciparum human malaria parasites, in vivo and in vitro . Using in vivo models - infection of non-human primates such as rhesus macaques and saimiri monkeys - researchers were able to generate transgenic lines of P. knowlesi, P. cynomolgi , and P. vivax . The development of long-term in vitro culture of P. knowlesi in the 2000's, using rhesus and human red blood cells, created a platform to genetically manipulate non- falciparum malaria parasites. Recently, the use of CRISPR/Cas9 technology to genome edit P. knowlesi provides another tool to non-falciparum malaria research, extending the possibilities and allowing researchers to study different aspects of the biology of these parasites and understand the differences between these species and P. falciparum ., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Vieira, Astro and Moraes Barros.)

Background: Plasmodium knowlesi is now the major cause of human malaria in Malaysia, complicating malaria control efforts that must attend to the elimination of multiple Plasmodium species. Recent advances in the cultivation of P. knowlesi erythrocytic-stage parasites in vitro, transformation with exogenous DNA, and infection of mosquitoes with gametocytes from culture have opened up studies of this pathogen without the need for resource-intensive and costly non-human primate (NHP) models. For further understanding and development of methods for parasite transformation in malaria research, this study examined the activity of various trans-species transcriptional control sequences and the influence of Plasmodium vivax centromeric (pvcen) repeats in plasmid-transfected P. knowlesi parasites., Methods: In vitro cultivated P. knowlesi parasites were transfected with plasmid constructs that incorporated Plasmodium vivax or Plasmodium falciparum 5' UTRs driving the expression of bioluminescence markers (firefly luciferase or Nanoluc). Promoter activities were assessed by bioluminescence, and parasites transformed with human resistant allele dihydrofolate reductase-expressing plasmids were selected using antifolates. The stability of transformants carrying pvcen-stabilized episomes was assessed by bioluminescence over a complete parasite life cycle through a rhesus macaque monkey, mosquitoes, and a second rhesus monkey., Results: Luciferase expression assessments show that certain P. vivax promoter regions, not functional in the more evolutionarily-distant P. falciparum, can drive transgene expression in P. knowlesi. Further, pvcen repeats may improve the stability of episomal plasmids in P. knowlesi and support detection of NanoLuc-expressing elements over the full parasite life cycle from rhesus macaque monkeys to Anopheles dirus mosquitoes and back again to monkeys. In assays of drug responses to chloroquine, G418 and WR9910, anti-malarial half-inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) values of blood stages measured by NanoLuc activity proved comparable to IC 50 values measured by the standard SYBR Green method., Conclusion: All three P. vivax promoters tested in this study functioned in P. knowlesi, whereas two of the three were inactive in P. falciparum. NanoLuc-expressing, centromere-stabilized plasmids may support high-throughput screenings of P. knowlesi for new anti-malarial agents, including compounds that can block the development of mosquito- and/or liver-stage parasites.

Mainstay treatment for Plasmodium vivax malaria has long relied on chloroquine (CQ) against blood-stage parasites plus primaquine against dormant liver-stage forms (hypnozoites), however drug resistance confronts this regimen and threatens malaria control programs. Understanding the basis of P. vivax chloroquine resistance (CQR) will inform drug discovery and malaria control. Here we investigate the genetics of P. vivax CQR by a cross of parasites differing in drug response. Gametocytogenesis, mosquito infection, and progeny production are performed with mixed parasite populations in nonhuman primates, as methods for P. vivax cloning and in vitro cultivation remain unavailable. Linkage mapping of progeny surviving >15 mg/kg CQ identifies a 76 kb region in chromosome 1 including pvcrt, an ortholog of the Plasmodium falciparum CQR transporter gene. Transcriptional analysis supports upregulated pvcrt expression as a mechanism of CQR.

Unlike the case in Asia and Latin America, Plasmodium vivax infections are rare in sub-Saharan Africa due to the absence of the Duffy blood group antigen (Duffy antigen), the only known erythrocyte receptor for the P. vivax merozoite invasion ligand, Duffy binding protein 1 (DBP1). However, P. vivax infections have been documented in Duffy-negative individuals throughout Africa, suggesting that P. vivax may use ligands other than DBP1 to invade Duffy-negative erythrocytes through other receptors. To identify potential P. vivax ligands, we compared parasite gene expression in Saimiri and Aotus monkey erythrocytes infected with P. vivax Salvador I (Sal I). DBP1 binds Aotus but does not bind to Saimiri erythrocytes; thus, P. vivax Sal I must invade Saimiri erythrocytes independent of DBP1. Comparing RNA sequencing (RNAseq) data for late-stage infections in Saimiri and Aotus erythrocytes when invasion ligands are expressed, we identified genes that belong to tryptophan-rich antigen and merozoite surface protein 3 (MSP3) families that were more abundantly expressed in Saimiri infections compared with Aotus infections. These genes may encode potential ligands responsible for P. vivax infections of Duffy-negative Africans., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Concerns about malaria parasite resistance to treatment with artemisinin drugs (ARTs) have grown with findings of prolonged parasite clearance t 1/2 s (>5 h) and their association with mutations in Plasmodium falciparum Kelch-propeller protein K13. Here, we describe a P. falciparum laboratory cross of K13 C580Y mutant with C580 wild-type parasites to investigate ART response phenotypes in vitro and in vivo. After genotyping >400 isolated progeny, we evaluated 20 recombinants in vitro: IC 50 measurements of dihydroartemisinin were at similar low nanomolar levels for C580Y- and C580-type progeny (mean ratio, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.62-1.61), whereas, in a ring-stage survival assay, the C580Y-type progeny had 19.6-fold (95% CI, 9.76-39.2) higher average counts. In splenectomized Aotus monkeys treated with three daily doses of i.v. artesunate, t 1/2 calculations by three different methods yielded mean differences of 0.01 h (95% CI, -3.66 to 3.67), 0.80 h (95% CI, -0.92 to 2.53), and 2.07 h (95% CI, 0.77-3.36) between C580Y and C580 infections. Incidences of recrudescence were 57% in C580Y (4 of 7) versus 70% in C580 (7 of 10) infections (-13% difference; 95% CI, -58% to 35%). Allelic substitution of C580 in a C580Y-containing progeny clone (76H10) yielded a transformant (76H10 C580Rev ) that, in an infected monkey, recrudesced regularly 13 times over 500 d. Frequent recrudescences of ART-treated P. falciparum infections occur with or without K13 mutations and emphasize the need for improved partner drugs to effectively eliminate the parasites that persist through the ART component of combination therapy., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest statement: R.M.F. and D.E.G. are coauthors of a paper published in 2017. N.F.G., D.A.F., and D.E.G. are coauthors of papers published in 2016 and 2018. K.M., C.A.L., and D.E.G. are coauthors of a paper published in 2014. R.S.R. and S.R.M. are coauthors of papers published in 2015 and 2017.

In vitro studies of sexual blood stages of the most fatal malaria species, Plasmodium falciparum, have revealed key processes by which gametocytes develop and transmit infection from humans to anopheline mosquitoes. However, most malaria cases outside sub-Saharan Africa are caused by other Plasmodium spp., frequently Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi, a zoonotic parasite of macaque monkeys. Gametocytes of P. vivax and P. knowlesi exhibit distinct morphology, faster development, and a shorter life span compared with gametocytes of P. falciparum, reflecting the evolutionary separation and biological differences of these species. Unlike P. falciparum, P. vivax cannot be cultivated in vitro, necessitating access to infected primates for laboratory studies. In contrast, P. knowlesi asexual stages have been successfully adapted to cultures in macaque and human red blood cells, but these stages have not been reported to produce gametocytes infective to mosquitoes. Here, we show that gametocyte production and sporadic, low-level mosquito infectivity of a P. knowlesi strain was not improved by application of a "crash" method commonly used to induce gametocytes in P. falciparum cultures. However, Percoll-gradient purified schizonts from this strain yielded highly synchronised populations that, in three of six experiments, produced infections at an average rate of 0.97-9.1 oocysts in Anopheles dirus mosquitoes. Oocyst counts were most abundant in mosquitoes that were fed from the synchronised cultures 36 h after schizont purification. Gametocytes in these cultures occurred at low prevalence and were difficult to observe. Transcription from orthologs of P. falciparum gametocyte-specific markers did not correlate with infectivity of the P. knowlesi parasites to mosquitoes. The ability to infect mosquitoes from in vitro-cultivated P. knowlesi will support research on the unique features of this emerging pathogen and facilitate comparative studies of transmission by the different human malarias., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Plasmodium vivax causes heavy burdens of disease across malarious regions worldwide. Mature P. vivax asexual and transmissive gametocyte stages occur in the blood circulation, and it is often assumed that accumulation/sequestration in tissues is not an important phase in their development. Here, we present a systematic study of P. vivax stage distributions in infected tissues of nonhuman primate (NHP) malaria models as well as in blood from human infections. In a comparative analysis of the transcriptomes of P. vivax and Plasmodium falciparum blood-stage parasites, we found a conserved cascade of stage-specific gene expression despite the greatly different gametocyte maturity times of these two species. Using this knowledge, we validated a set of conserved asexual- and gametocyte-stage markers both by quantitative real-time PCR and by antibody assays of peripheral blood samples from infected patients and NHP ( Aotus sp.). Histological analyses of P. vivax parasites in organs of 13 infected NHP ( Aotus and Saimiri species) demonstrated a major fraction of immature gametocytes in the parenchyma of the bone marrow, while asexual schizont forms were enriched to a somewhat lesser extent in this region of the bone marrow as well as in sinusoids of the liver. These findings suggest that the bone marrow is an important reservoir for gametocyte development and proliferation of malaria parasites. IMPORTANCE Plasmodium vivax malaria continues to cause major public health burdens worldwide. Yet, significant knowledge gaps in the basic biology and epidemiology of P. vivax malaria remain, largely due to limited available tools for research and diagnostics. Here, we present a systematic examination of tissue sequestration during P. vivax infection. Studies of nonhuman primates and malaria patients revealed enrichment of developing sexual stages (gametocytes) and mature replicative stages (schizonts) in the bone marrow and liver, relative to those present in peripheral blood. Identification of the bone marrow as a major P. vivax tissue reservoir has important implications for parasite diagnosis and treatment., (Copyright © 2018 Obaldia et al.)

Human infections from Plasmodium knowlesi present challenges to malaria control in Southeast Asia. P. knowlesi also offers a model for other human malaria species including Plasmodium vivax. P. knowlesi parasites can be cultivated in the laboratory, and their transformation is standardly performed by direct electroporation of schizont-infected red blood cells (RBCs) with plasmid DNA. Here we show that the efficiency of direct electroporation is exquisitely dependent on developmental age of the schizonts. Additionally, we show that transformation of P. knowlesi can be achieved without direct electroporation by using the parasite's ability to infect and take up DNA from plasmid-loaded RBCs. Transformation with plasmid-loaded RBCs does not require labor-intensive preparations of schizont-infected RBCs as for direct electroporation, and parasite damage from high voltage discharge is avoided. Further studies of the mechanism of spontaneous DNA uptake may suggest strategies for improved transformation and provide insights into the transport pathways of apicomplexans., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Trypanosoma cruzi chromosome ends are enriched in surface protein genes and pseudogenes (e.g., trans-sialidases) surrounded by repetitive sequences. It has been proposed that the extensive sequence variability among members of these protein families could play a role in parasite infectivity and evasion of host immune response. In previous reports we showed evidence suggesting that sequences located in these regions are subjected to recombination. To support this hypothesis we introduced a double-strand break (DSB) at a specific target site in a T. cruzi subtelomeric region cloned into an artificial chromosome (pTAC). This construct was used to transfect T. cruzi epimastigotes expressing the I-SceI meganuclease. Examination of the repaired sequences showed that DNA repair occurred only through homologous recombination (HR) with endogenous subtelomeric sequences. Our findings suggest that DSBs in subtelomeric repetitive sequences followed by HR between them may contribute to increased variability in T. cruzi multigene families.

Background: Artemisinin-based combination therapy is recommended to treat Plasmodium falciparum worldwide, but observations of longer artemisinin (ART) parasite clearance times (PCTs) in Southeast Asia are widely interpreted as a sign of potential ART resistance. In search of an in vitro correlate of in vivo PCT after ART treatment, a ring-stage survival assay (RSA) of 0-3 h parasites was developed and linked to polymorphisms in the Kelch propeller protein (K13). However, RSA remains a laborious process, involving heparin, Percoll gradient, and sorbitol treatments to obtain rings in the 0-3 h window. Here two alternative RSA protocols are presented and compared to the standard Percoll-based method, one highly stage-specific and one streamlined for laboratory application., Methods: For all protocols, P. falciparum cultures were synchronized with 5 % sorbitol treatment twice over two intra-erythrocytic cycles. For a filtration-based RSA, late-stage schizonts were passed through a 1.2 μm filter to isolate merozoites, which were incubated with uninfected erythrocytes for 45 min. The erythrocytes were then washed to remove lysis products and further incubated until 3 h post-filtration. Parasites were pulsed with either 0.1 % dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or 700 nM dihydroartemisinin in 0.1 % DMSO for 6 h, washed twice in drug-free media, and incubated for 66-90 h, when survival was assessed by microscopy. For a sorbitol-only RSA, synchronized young (0-3 h) rings were treated with 5 % sorbitol once more prior to the assay and adjusted to 1 % parasitaemia. The drug pulse, incubation, and survival assessment were as described above., Results: Ring-stage survival of P. falciparum parasites containing either the K13 C580 or C580Y polymorphism (associated with low and high RSA survival, respectively) were assessed by the described filtration and sorbitol-only methods and produced comparable results to the reported Percoll gradient RSA. Advantages of both new methods include: fewer reagents, decreased time investment, and fewer procedural steps, with enhanced stage-specificity conferred by the filtration method., Conclusions: Assessing P. falciparum ART sensitivity in vitro via RSA can be streamlined and accurately evaluated in the laboratory by filtration or sorbitol synchronization methods, thus increasing the accessibility of the assay to research groups.

Plasmodium vivax is a major cause of malaria morbidity worldwide yet has remained genetically intractable. To stably modify this organism, we used zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), which take advantage of homology-directed DNA repair mechanisms at the site of nuclease action. Using ZFNs specific to the gene encoding P. vivax dihydrofolate reductase (pvdhfr), we transfected blood specimens from Saimiri boliviensis monkeys infected with the pyrimethamine (Pyr)-susceptible Chesson strain with a ZFN plasmid carrying a Pyr-resistant mutant pvdhfr sequence. We obtained Pyr-resistant parasites in vivo that carried mutant pvdhfr and additional silent mutations designed to confirm editing. These results herald the era of stable P. vivax genetic modifications., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2014. This work is written by (a) US Government employee(s) and is in the public domain in the US.)

The identification of new targets for vaccine and drug development for the treatment of Chagas' disease is dependent on deepening our understanding of the parasite genome. Vectors for genetic manipulation in Trypanosoma cruzi basically include those that remain as circular episomes and those that integrate into the parasite's genome. Artificial chromosomes are alternative vectors to overcome problematic transgene expression often occurring with conventional vectors in this parasite. We have constructed a series of vectors named pTACs (Trypanosome Artificial Chromosomes), all of them carrying telomeric and subtelomeric sequences and genes conferring resistance to different selection drugs. In addition, one pTAC harbours a modified GFP gene (pTAC-gfp), and another one carries the ornithine decarboxilase gene from Crithidia fasciculata (pTAC-odc). We have encountered artificial chromosomes generated from pTACs in transformed T. cruzi epimastigotes for every version of the designed vectors. These extragenomic elements, in approximately 6-8 copies per cell, remained as linear episomes, contained telomeres and persisted after 150 and 60 generations with or without selection drugs, respectively. The linear molecules remained stable through the different T. cruzi developmental forms. Furthermore, derived artificial chromosomes from pTAC-odc could complement the auxotrophy of T. cruzi for polyamines. Our results show that pTACs constitute useful tools for reverse functional genetics in T. cruzi that will contribute to a better understanding of T. cruzi biology., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: The subtelomeres of many protozoa are highly enriched in genes with roles in niche adaptation. T. cruzi trypomastigotes express surface proteins from Trans-Sialidase (TS) and Dispersed Gene Family-1 (DGF-1) superfamilies which are implicated in host cell invasion. Single populations of T. cruzi may express different antigenic forms of TSs. Analysis of TS genes located at the telomeres suggests that chromosome ends could have been the sites where new TS variants were generated. The aim of this study is to characterize telomeric and subtelomeric regions of T. cruzi available in TriTrypDB and connect the sequences of telomeres to T. cruzi working draft sequence., Results: We first identified contigs carrying the telomeric repeat (TTAGGG). Of 49 contigs identified, 45 have telomeric repeats at one end, whereas in four contigs the repeats are located internally. All contigs display a conserved telomeric junction sequence adjacent to the hexamer repeats which represents a signature of T. cruzi chromosome ends. We found that 40 telomeric contigs are located on T. cruzi chromosome-sized scaffolds. In addition, we were able to map several telomeric ends to the chromosomal bands separated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.The subtelomeric sequence structure varies widely, mainly as a result of large differences in the relative abundance and organization of genes encoding surface proteins (TS and DGF-1), retrotransposon hot spot genes (RHS), retrotransposon elements, RNA-helicase and N-acetyltransferase genes. While the subtelomeric regions are enriched in pseudogenes, they also contain complete gene sequences matching both known and unknown expressed genes, indicating that these regions do not consist of nonfunctional DNA but are instead functional parts of the expressed genome. The size of the subtelomeric regions varies from 5 to 182 kb; the smaller of these regions could have been generated by a recent chromosome breakage and telomere healing event., Conclusions: The lack of synteny in the subtelomeric regions suggests that genes located in these regions are subject to recombination, which increases their variability, even among homologous chromosomes. The presence of typical subtelomeric genes can increase the chance of homologous recombination mechanisms or microhomology-mediated end joining, which may use these regions for the pairing and recombination of free ends.