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Industrial sites processing and storing hazardous chemicals can be attractive targets of malicious acts of interference. The consequences successful intentional attacks to chemical facilities can be severe and could escalate generating domino effects, potentially affecting people and the environment. Moreover, intentional attacks have a dynamic escalation that is not well depicted by conventional analyses, which are instead static. This works focuses on the development of a comprehensive tool for Integrated Safety-Security risk assessment and related domino effects based on a three-dimensional (3D) real-time approach. Firstly, the plant is inspected using a drone to generate the graphic interface of the tool, which is the 3D reconstruction of the plant. Real-time data are associated with each mapped element, e.g., pressure/temperature conditions. The tool allows for the evaluation of probabilities and 3D consequences of accidents given real time and/or user input data. Potential domino effects of integrated safety-security scenarios will also be included in the tool, allowing for the mapping of plant vulnerability, risk and supporting the evaluation of weaknesses and need of additional countermeasures. In order to provide a sample application, a simplified version of the tool was used on a case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The actual energy transition calls for the highest ever engagement of institutions and private sectors in the adoption of renewable energy systems in order to decarbonize all production chains. The high potential of renewable energy sources (RESs) in several locations worldwide is looked at as an important opportunity to both limit the energy supply issues and shift towards a greener society. On the other hand, it is also accompanied by the issues of resource variability, forecasting need and difficult management of the energy surpluses. The contemporary exploitation of multiple RESs in a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) is a strategic initiative aimed at reducing the energy supply risk in a specific location, while decarbonizing the power generation facilities that satisfy specific energy requests. By means of systems optimally designed that valorize the RESs site-specific features and time trends, it is possible to comply with the identified energy demands while obtaining increased reliability. This contribution introduces an approach for the preliminary design of HRESs which is capable of accounting for the specific geographical constraints and the energy requests to be fulfilled. The approach is simulation-based, thus analyses the performance of all the possible combinations of renewable energy conversion technologies in terms of supply reliability and assesses their sustainability profile through key indicators. The application of the method is exemplified through a case study located on the island of Crete, Greece, for the valorization of the combined exploitation of offshore wind and wave energy. The most sustainable designs of the HRES in the site foresee the installation of 12 offshore wind turbines and maximum 10 wave energy converters for an overall system potentiality higher than 110 MW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of the offshore integration of fossil and renewable energy sources (RESs) to produce an energy vector, namely methanol, are discussed. The methodology developed and hereby presented, allowed at first the selection of the best technology for offshore RESs exploitation, where a near-to-decommissioning platform is used as an energy hub. Based on the availability of natural gas from the depleted reservoir, the most suitable process for offshore methanol production was chosen among various alternative innovative processes. The optimal mix for energy production was then identified by varying the number of converters for each RES. Finally, the methanol production process was designed on the basis of the available electric power, including a backup system based on natural gas, to perform RESs valley filling and to achieve a steady state process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dimethyl ether (DME) and methanol are proposed as synthetic fuels prone to substitute present fossil propellants in the energy transition framework. Methanol and DME are traditionally synthesised starting from syngas but nowadays new production processes based on the efficient catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 have been introduced. Multiple catalysts, reaction conditions and reactor configurations have been tested to enhance the production performance of both fuels, especially for the case of DME. In fact, DME can be produced indirectly from CO2, i.e. after methanol synthesis and purification. Alternatively, it can be synthesised in a one-pot conversion mode by means of bifunctional catalysts directly receiving CO2. The latter route, avoiding several intermediate separation operations, appears promising from the process intensification viewpoint, thus favouring DME production with respect to methanol. Since safety plays an important role from the standpoint of societal acceptability, it needs to be considered in the selection of sustainable alternatives, especially when dealing with novel processes in the context of energy transition. This contribution aims to address an inherent safety assessment for the comparison of the production processes of methanol and DME production via CO2 hydrogenation. Inherent safety is evaluated through a consequence-based approach using specific Inherent Safety Key Performance Indicators, which proved to be effective in several applications to early process design. The results obtained shed light on the inherent safety performance of these alternative routes, thus helping decision-makers in accounting for process safety issues in the assessment of the sustainability of these alternative energy vectors for Power to Liquid (PtL) applications and in the selection of the best technological alternative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present contribution aims at providing an innovative method for the assessment of human barriers, specifically addressing the framework of the energy industry, including offshore operations. Introducing a revised framework to analyse human errors, the methodology developed aims at extending the current Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) methods including psychosocial factors and barriers. The new methodology was developed extending and tailoring to the specific context the well-known framework set by two widely used HRA methodologies (SPAR-H and HEART). An innovative holistic framework, dedicated to the wide range of operations of the energy industry, was developed to assess human error probability (HEP). Human factors were considered safety barriers against human error: more specifically, workers were considered having an active role in shaping their own performance. The method developed introduced a revision of the Generic Task Types (GTT). Each GTT was then associated with a Nominal Error Probability (NEP). The NEP is then modified by the assessment of correction factors obtained from the assessment of conditions affecting task performance, in analogy with the Performance Shaping Factors (PSF) approach introduced by SPAR-H. The method proved to be easy to apply and the results obtained clearly show that human factors play a significant role in preventing workers from making errors while performing tasks by reducing human error probability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The release of hazardous materials induced by natural events affecting industrial facilities presents peculiar characteristics because of the huge potential extension of the affected areas. The reduction of both the likelihood and the magnitude of such events represents an essential step to reduce the risk associated with Natech accidents. Nevertheless, the evaluation of damage to the environment in Natech events has been poorly addressed. In the present study, past accidents analysis was carried out, using both a detailed description of specific accidents and an extended database of Natech events. Lessons learnt as well as possible common patterns and main features related to such accidents were identified and discussed. The results of the present study can be intended as a preliminary step for the development of models for the quantitative assessment of damage to the environment in major accidents caused by natural events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the framework of energy transition, safety is a key requirement to be satisfied by novel process technologies. The aim of this study is to compare, from an inherent safety standpoint, three technologies for the production of green hydrogen via water splitting, powered by Renewable Energy Sources (RESs), in order to identify the inherently safest option and the critical equipment and/or operating conditions to be considered in the scale-up and industrialization of such technologies. The technologies considered for green hydrogen production are: alkaline electrolysis, proton exchange membrane electrolysis and reversible Solid Oxide Cells. The application of a consolidated methodology for inherent safety assessment based on Inherent Safety Key Performance Indicators (IS-KPIs) enabled to identify the most critical units within each process scheme and to select the inherently safest technological solution presently available for green hydrogen production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, several locations are characterized by abundance of natural energy sources, prone to be converted in power for electricity generation and process-related duties. However, the discontinuity of such renewable energy sources (RES) coupled with their conversion difficulties, results in moderate advantages when a steady power demand has to be satisfied using a single energy source. To overcome the forehead mentioned limitations, profitable renewable energy harvesting can be reached by exploiting multiple RES at once. Such possibility is, in principle, very versatile, thanks to the modularity of the integrated power generation plant, that can be designed based on the energy availability and investment options. In the present work, the approach of integrating multiple RES was used to assess the technical feasibility of harvesting solar (via photovoltaic panels) and wave energy (via wave energy converters) to supply a desalination unit for the production of irrigation water in Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain). The available energy from RES was evaluated through the elaboration of weather-climate hourly data, offered by open-access databases. Then, the proper conversion technologies were selected and single production curves were obtained. The integrated system was conceptually designed overlapping the hourly power generations; its performance was assessed with respect to possible duties of the desalination unit. The self-sustainment level of the integrated system was evaluated by calculating the percentage of time that RES can cover the requested power. Based on this, the selection of the most sustainable RES mixing was set, determining, in turn, the final productivity of the desalination facility. The results demonstrated that the integration of different RES represents a reliable and environmentally sustainable solution, especially for remote areas dependent on fossil fuels importation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

T he process industry and similar sectors are undergoing a digital transition towards higher levels of automation. This, while ensuring advantages such as efficient process control, quick and safe response to abnormal conditions, improvement of product quality and continuous process optimization, it exposes the process sites to cybersecurity threats. A cyber-attack, besides economic and reputation damages, can potentially trigger major accidents (e.g. loss of containment of hazardous materials) with severe consequences on workers, population and the environment. In the present study, the cybersecurity-related incidents (CSIs) that occurred in the chemical, petrochemical, energy production, and water/wastewater sectors, were investigated. The analysis is based on the development of a database of 78 cybersecurity-related incidents. The aim of the study is to frame a clear picture of the cyber-attacks on IT-OT (Information Technology - Operational Technology) system of process facilities and to issue lessons learnt from past incidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Safety is an aspect of primary relevance in early-process design and can hardly be neglected: the consequences of accidents in chemical plants have always high impact on economics and reputation. In the phase of alternative technologies' evaluation, applying inherent safety approaches helps in identifying the major safety challenges of process schemes, orienting the final selection. In the present work, an inherent safety assessment was performed to compare two innovative fuels' production facilities: biodiesel from microalgae and methanol synthesized via CO2 catalytic hydrogenation. The two schemes were developed to fulfil an industrial scale production, considering the best available technologies in terms of yields and energetic economy for both cases. The inherent safety performances were evaluated through a multi-criteria approach using key-performance indicators (KPIs): potential accident scenarios were simulated, followed by the identification of consequences and relative occurrence frequencies, as to quantify the risks affecting human target. The results enabled to identify the inherently safer option among two innovative processes for energytransition fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase both in frequency and magnitude of natural events makes the study of the interaction between natural events and industrial facilities of paramount importance. Natural events may affect facilities leading to major accidents (e.g. explosion, fire, ...) and these events are called NaTech (natural hazards triggering technological disasters). Extreme temperatures are one of the causes of NaTechs and the first step in studying their interaction with industrial facilities is given by the historical analysis of past accidents, being essentially the only source of information. To do this, a dataset of 305 past events was collected and analysed in order to highlight the main features of these accidents, such as the trend over the years, the geographical location, the final scenarios and the type of industrial sectors involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade, microalgae cultivation has become an attractive solution for biomass valorisation. From an industrial standpoint, one important aspect is the combination of the mixotrophic growth of microalgae with the biosynthesis of fatty acids, which represents a sustainable feedstock for the biodiesel chain. Nevertheless, the actual energy-effectiveness of the whole process is doubtful as the indispensable biomass recovery and drying steps are energy-intensive. To discuss this issue, this work presents a comparison between a 3rd generation biodiesel production plant and a methanol synthesis facility, powered by photovoltaic (PV) electricity from sunlight. The objective is to evaluate the energy efficiency of the two production processes (by means of KPIs) given the same solar incidence area. The two process designs assume the best available technologies for the operations involved, in terms of reaction conversions and separation performances to maximise the yield in the final product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays most of energy supply and chemicals are produced from fossil fuels. However, environmental concerns like global warming, depletion of non-renewable resources and pollution, force to search for more sustainable alternative feedstocks. In this framework, the valorization of renewable resources is currently one of the most promising strategies for the next future. In particular, the use of biomass is ranked first for production of chemicals. One of the most attractive compounds that can be obtained from lignocellulosic biomass is Levulinic acid (LA). The present work analyses, from a technical, economic and safety standpoint, the valorization of waste biomass (OPEFB, oil palm empty fruit bunch) to LA with different methodologies. Energy demand of the plant and the separation efficiency are evaluated carrying out process simulations by the commercial software Aspen HYSYS V10. The obtained results allowed an economic analysis of the alternatives, based on the evaluation of investment and main operating costs. The alternatives were screened on the basis of net present value (NPV) of costs. Safety performance was investigated by an inherent safety assessment method. This considered toxic dispersion and fire scenarios, calculating the damage distances associated with the potential outcomes of an accident and allowing for the evaluation of a potential hazard index for each main process equipment. The choice of the optimal layout configuration for the production of LA in early phases of design allowed to address, in a time and cost-effective way, further design activities in reducing the energy demand and ensuring potentially safer plants making the whole process more sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting from the statement that all activities involve, in principle, an exposure to risk, some years ago, the standard ISO 31000:2009 was published, in order to provide principles and generic guidelines on the management of risks within organizations of all types and sizes throughout their whole life. The standard does not specify the exact nature of risk (i.e. industrial, natural, occupational, etc.) nor it is specific to any industry or sector, therefore any public, private or community enterprise, association, group or individual is supposed to be able to use it. The standard ISO 31000:2009 is supported by the standard ISO 31010:2009, which provides guidance on the selection and application of systematic techniques for risk assessment. In a less generic framework, risk can be due to different activities that are carried out in different industrial sector. Among them, activities involving dangerous substances may be cause of accidents. The Seveso III Directive (2012/18/EU) aims at the prevention of major accidents involving these substances. The Directive covers establishments where dangerous substances may be present (e.g. during processing or storage) in quantities exceeding certain threshold. Depending on the amount of dangerous substances present, establishments are categorized in upper and lower tier, the latter may include also some SMEs adopting dangerous substances in their activities (a typical example is the electroplating industry). The legal framework established by the Directive creates a continuous improvement cycle of prevention, preparedness and response to major accidents. The cycle is closed by provisions on lesson learned, similarly to ISO 31000:2009 and ISO 31010:2009 standards. Also in the framework of Directive 89/391/EEC, which is aimed at offering guidance and promotes healthy and safe working environments - particularly in small businesses, some aspects related to accidents due to critical activities are present and the same general principle of risk management according to a cycle of continuous improvement can be applied. In this work a procedure aimed at the application of a continuous improvement approach to emergency planning, response and management starting from risk assessment and management activities is shown also with the aid of a practical illustrative example based on a small facility under Seveso III directive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present framework of global energy transition, a significant increase in the use of carbon-neutral synthetic fuels as renewable energy carriers is expected in the next years. Renewable resources are huge even though scarcely exploitable due to aleatory availability and costs of transportation when produced in remote areas and offshore. Thus, the synergy of methanol production with oil & gas activities represents a beneficial opportunity to share infrastructures and convert renewable energy in a synthetic liquid fuel which can be easily stored and transported. Renewable methanol is a valuable chemical and an energy transition fuel with several applications, in particular in the mobility sector. Moreover, the use of carbon dioxide as raw material for the methanol synthesis could have a positive impact on the global carbon balance, valorising the attractive "Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU)" concept. However, the novelty of renewable methanol process technologies in the renewable energy context requires a thorough investigation of the critical concerns of the possible routes, among which the safety challenges are prominent. The application of the inherent safety approach can play a paramount role for orienting choices in the preliminary design phases of safer methanol production processes. In the present study, reference schemes for processes proposed for renewable synthetic methanol production were defined. The expected inherent safety performance of the alternative processes were assessed by a specific system of multi-criteria key performance indicators (KPIs), based on the consequence simulation of potential accident scenarios affecting different targets (i.e. humans, assets, environment) both onshore and offshore. The results of the applied methodology allowed a preliminary screening of the hazard level of the alternative process routes, as well as the identification of the key safety issues that need to be addressed in the further development of inherently safer methanol production technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NaTech events (Natural Hazard Triggering Technological Disasters) are becoming an increasing concern in the Chemical and Process Industry (CPI). From a risk management standpoint, a better understanding of such events is of paramount importance. In this perspective, the analysis of past accidents is crucial, being almost the only source of information on the possible interactions between natural threats and CPI. To this aim, the present work collected 438 past NaTechs that affected CPI, analysing the trends of accidents with respect to the trend of natural disasters, the geographical localization, the type of natural hazard triggering the accident, the final scenarios (e.g. fire, explosion,...) and the consequences on human and assets. For each type of NaTech, significant accidents have been reported and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Security threats are becoming an increasing concern for chemical sites and related infrastructures where relevant quantities of hazardous materials are processed, stored or transported. In the present study, security related events that affected chemical and process sites, and related infrastructures, were investigated. The aim of the study is to frame a clear picture of the threats affecting the chemical and process industry, and to issue lessons learnt from past events. A database of 300 security-related accidents was developed and populated, starting from European and American sources. Threat categories that caused such events were identified and analyzed. The attack modes were investigated. Important differences were found with respect to geographical areas and industrial sectors affected. The use of explosives (both military and improvised explosive devices) is by far the more frequent attack mode, although armed attacks and arson are also frequent events and may result in an in-depth penetration of the attackers. In recent years, cyber-attacks are also posing important threats. Lessons learnt call for the implementation of a specific security management system in the chemical and process industry, aiming at the physical and cyber protection of industrial sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interest in the epoxidation of vegetable oils is constantly growing in the chemical industry. The most common process is based on the oxidation of the unsaturated bonds by peroxyacids generated in situ, in the w ater phase, using concentrated hydrogen peroxide and the corresponding organic acid in presence of a mineral acid as catalyst. The overall epoxidation reaction is highly exothermic, hence operating conditions should be always addressed by safety considerations related to the possibility of runaway reactions. In this paper, best operating conditions and safety considerations have been defined for a complex reaction network for the epoxidation of soybean oil, which includes the decomposition reactions of the performic acid generated during the epoxidation. Furthermore, sensitivity-based reactor stability criteria have been applied and compared, for the design of an adequate Early Warning Detection System for the process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]