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Due to increased and broadened screening efforts, the last decade has seen a rapid expansion in the number of viral species classified into the Hepacivirus genus. Conserved genetic features of hepaciviruses suggest they have undergone specific adaptation and evolved to hijack similar host proteins for efficient propagation in the liver. Here, we developed pseudotyped viruses to elucidate the entry factors of GB virus-B (GBV-B), the first hepacivirus described in an animal, closely related to hepatitis C virus (HCV). GBV-B pseudotyped viruses (GBVBpp) were shown to be uniquely sensitive to the serum of tamarins infected with GBV-B, validating their usefulness as a surrogate for GBV-B entry studies. We screened GBVBpp infection of hepatoma cell lines CRISPR/Cas9-engineered to ablate expression of individual HCV receptors/entry factors and found that claudin-1 is essential for GBV-B infection, indicating GBV-B and HCV share a common entry factor. Our data suggest that claudin-1 facilitates HCV and GBV-B entry through distinct mechanisms since the former requires the first extracellular loop and the latter is reliant on the second extracellular loop. The implication of this sharing of claudin-1 as an entry factor between these two hepaciviruses on their tissue tropism and evolutionary relationships will be discussed.ImportanceHepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major public health burden; approximately 58 million individuals have chronic HCV infection which could lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer. To achieve the World Health Organisation target of eliminating hepatitis by 2030, new therapeutics and vaccines are needed. Understanding how HCV enters the cells will inform the design of new vaccines and treatments, targeting the first stage of HCV infection. However, the entry mechanism is complex and sparsely described. Studying the entry of related hepaciviruses will increase the knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of the first stages of HCV infection, such as the membrane fusion, and inform structure-guided HCV vaccine design; in this work we have identified a protein, Claudin-1, which facilitates the entry of HCV-related hepacivirus, but with a mechanism not described for HCV. Similar work on other hepaciviruses may unveil commonality of entry factors and possibly new mechanisms.

E1 and E2 (E1E2), the fusion proteins of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), are unlike that of any other virus yet described, and the detailed molecular mechanisms of HCV entry/fusion remain unknown. Hypervariable region-1 (HVR-1) of E2 is a putative intrinsically disordered protein tail. Here, we demonstrate that HVR-1 has an autoinhibitory function that suppresses the activity of E1E2 on free virions; this is dependent on its conformational entropy. Thus, HVR-1 is akin to a safety catch that prevents premature triggering of E1E2 activity. Crucially, this mechanism is turned off by host receptor interactions at the cell surface to allow entry. Mutations that reduce conformational entropy in HVR-1, or genetic deletion of HVR-1, turn off the safety catch to generate hyper-reactive HCV that exhibits enhanced virus entry but is thermally unstable and acutely sensitive to neutralising antibodies. Therefore, the HVR-1 safety catch controls the efficiency of virus entry and maintains resistance to neutralising antibodies. This discovery provides an explanation for the ability of HCV to persist in the face of continual immune assault and represents a novel regulatory mechanism that is likely to be found in other viral fusion machinery.

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants has exacerbated the COVID-19 global health crisis. Thus far, all variants carry mutations in the spike glycoprotein, which is a critical determinant of viral transmission being responsible for attachment, receptor engagement and membrane fusion, and an important target of immunity. Variants frequently bear truncations of flexible loops in the N-terminal domain (NTD) of spike; the functional importance of these modifications has remained poorly characterised. We demonstrate that NTD deletions are important for efficient entry by the Alpha and Omicron variants and that this correlates with spike stability. Phylogenetic analysis reveals extensive NTD loop length polymorphisms across the sarbecoviruses, setting an evolutionary precedent for loop remodelling. Guided by these analyses, we demonstrate that variations in NTD loop length, alone, are sufficient to modulate virus entry. We propose that variations in NTD loop length act to fine-tune spike; this may provide a mechanism for SARS-CoV-2 to navigate a complex selection landscape encompassing optimisation of essential functionality, immune driven antigenic variation and ongoing adaptation to a new host.

The recent emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with increased transmission, pathogenesis and immune resistance has jeopardised the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Determining the fundamental biology of viral variants and understanding their evolutionary trajectories will guide current mitigation measures, future genetic surveillance and vaccination strategies. Here we examine virus entry by the B.1.1.7 lineage, commonly referred to as the UK/Kent variant. Pseudovirus infection of model cell lines demonstrate that B.1.1.7 entry is enhanced relative to the Wuhan-Hu-1 reference strain, particularly under low expression of receptor ACE2. Moreover, the entry characteristics of B.1.1.7 were distinct from that of its predecessor strain containing the D614G mutation. These data suggest evolutionary tuning of spike protein function. Additionally, we found that amino acid deletions within the N-terminal domain (NTD) of spike were important for efficient entry by B.1.1.7. The NTD is a hotspot of diversity across sarbecoviruses, therefore, we further investigated this region by examining the entry of closely related CoVs. Surprisingly, Pangolin CoV spike entry was 50-100 fold enhanced relative to SARS-CoV-2; suggesting there may be evolutionary pathways by which SARS-CoV-2 may further optimise entry. Swapping the NTD between Pangolin CoV and SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates that changes in this region alone have the capacity to enhance virus entry. Thus, the NTD plays a hitherto unrecognised role in modulating spike activity, warranting further investigation and surveillance of NTD mutations.

Great strides have been made in understanding and treating Hepatitis C virus (HCV) thanks in part to the development of the full-length cell-culture system, the pseudoparticle system and soluble envelope glycoproteins. The HCV pseudoparticle (HCVpp) system is a platform used extensively in studies of cell entry, screening of novel entry inhibitors, assessing the phenotypes of clinically observed E1 and E2 glycoproteins and, most pertinently, in characterising neutralizing antibody breadth induced upon vaccination and natural infection in patients. Nonetheless, some patient-derived clones fail to produce infectious particles or produce particles that exhibit infectivity too low for meaningful phenotyping. The mechanisms governing whether any particular clone produces infectious pseudoparticles are poorly understood. Here we show that endogenous expression of CD81, an HCV receptor and a cognate binding partner of E2, in producer HEK 293T cells is detrimental to the infectivity of recovered HCVpp for most strains. Many HCVpp clones exhibited increased infectivity or had their infectivity rescued when they were produced in HEK 293T cells CRISPR/Cas9 engineered to ablate CD81 expression (293TCD81KO). Clones made in 293TCD81KO cells were antigenically very similar to their matched counterparts made parental cells and appear to honour the accepted HCV entry pathway. Deletion of CD81 did not appreciably increase the recovered titres of soluble E2 (sE2). However, we did, unexpectedly, find that monomeric sE2 made in 293T and 293F exhibit important differences. We found that 293F-produced sE2 harbours mostly complex type glycans whilst 293T-produced sE2 displays a heterogeneous mixture of both complex type glycans and highmannose or hybrid type glycans. Moreover, sE2 produced in HEK 293T cells is antigenically superior; exhibiting increased binding to conformational antibodies and the large extracellular loop of CD81. In summary, this work describes an optimal cell line for the production of HCVpp and reveals that sE2 made in 293T and 293F cells are not antigenic equals. Our findings have implications for functional studies of E1E2 and the production of candidate immunogens.

The mechanism by which hepatitis C virus (HCV) gains entry into cells is a complex one, involving a broad range of host proteins. Entry is a critical phase of the viral lifecycle, and a potential target for therapeutic or vaccine-mediated intervention. However, the mechanics of HCV entry remain poorly understood. Here we describe a novel computational model of viral entry, encompassing the relationship between HCV and the key host receptors CD81 and SR-B1. We conduct experiments to thoroughly quantify the influence of an increase or decrease in receptor availability upon the extent of viral entry. We use these data to build and parameterise a mathematical model, which we then validate by further experiments. Our results are consistent with sequential HCV-receptor interactions, whereby initial interaction between the HCV E2 glycoprotein and SR-B1 facilitates the accumulation CD81 receptors, leading to viral entry. However, we also demonstrate that a small minority of viruses can achieve entry in the absence of SR-B1. Our model estimates the impact of the different obstacles that viruses must surmount to achieve entry; among virus particles attaching to the cell surface, around one third of viruses accumulate sufficient CD81 receptors, of which 4–8% then complete the subsequent steps to achieve productive infection. Furthermore, we make estimates of receptor stoichiometry; in excess of 10 receptors are likely to be required to achieve viral entry. Our model provides a tool to investigate the entry characteristics of HCV variants and outlines a framework for future quantitative studies of the multi-receptor dynamics of HCV entry., Author summary Hepatitis C virus affects approximately 70 million people worldwide, resulting in a significant impact on human health. The virus initiates infection through a complex set of interactions with proteins on the surface of human cells. Here we combine experimental approaches with a new mathematical model to study the process of viral entry. Our model is successful in capturing the behaviour of experiments, which show how changes in the amount of the human proteins CD81 and SR-B1 expressed by a cell alter the probability of a virus getting into a cell. Our model suggests that more than 10 CD81 receptors are needed to gain entry into a cell, and shows that viral entry is a difficult task, with many viruses failing at different stages of the entry process. Our model sets out a basis for further quantitative research into the process of HCV viral entry.