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In conducting research on humans, respect for human dignity requires investigators to obtain informed consent. Institutional pressures, however, often reduce the informed consent form to a signature on a document. Unfortunately, people often do not read or understand these documents. In the present effort, we argue that the key problem here arises because investigators often do not take into account the psychology of participants. Based on 3 articles, we argue that informed consent requires investigators to help participants “make sense” of a study, and its implications, for both themselves and others. Informed consent procedures that might encourage participant sensemaking are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although education in the responsible conduct of research is considered necessary, evidence bearing on the effectiveness of these programs in improving research ethics has indicated that, although some programs are successful, many fail. Accordingly, there is a need for systematic evaluation of ethics education programs. In the present effort, we examine procedures for evaluation of ethics education programs from a multilevel perspective: examining both within-program evaluation and cross-program evaluation. With regard to within-program evaluation, we note requisite designs and measures for conducting systematic program evaluation have been developed and multiple measures should be applied in program evaluation. With regard to cross-program evaluation, we argue that a meta-analytic framework should be employed where analyses are used to identify best practices in ethics education. The implications of this multilevel approach for improving responsible conduct of research educational programs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work has demonstrated the importance of evaluation to creative problem solving. How people go about evaluating creative ideas, however, may also influence their performance on creative problem-solving tasks. In the present study, undergraduates were asked to provide advertising campaigns for a marketing problem where solutions were evaluated for quality, originality, and elegance. Prior to preparing their campaigns they were presented with a set of candidate ideas and asked to critique these ideas. Attributes of criticisms were appraised with respect to amount, number, depth, usefulness, range, complexity, isolation, risk sensitivity, operational relevance, and specificity. It was found that more creative problem solutions were obtained when people provided a limited number of deep criticisms. Moreover, effective criticism was inhibited by problem complexity. The implications of these findings for improving performance on tasks calling for creative thinking are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Idea evaluation has been identified as a critical step in the creative problem-solving process. Yet, it is unclear how exactly individuals evaluate and compensate for weaknesses in their creative ideas. In the present study, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to identify the compensatory strategies that undergraduate participants applied during the creative idea evaluation process. Additionally, the impact of the application of these strategies and the impact of leader feedback was examined on the production of high quality, original, and elegant solutions to a creative problem. Eleven compensatory strategies were identified and subsequently categorized as effective or ineffective based on their impact on the creative solutions developed. It was found that effective strategies were those that focused on improving product value with respect to the customer, and ineffective strategies were those that focused on profit and marketing strategy. It was also found that negative leader feedback reduced the application of ineffective compensatory strategies, and leader feedback that applied both innovative and operative standards led to the production of more original creative problem solutions. The implications of these findings for improving performance on creative tasks are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple models have been proposed to account for violence among ideological groups. To identify critical variables contributing to violent behavior in these groups, violent ideological groups were compared to relevant comparison groups. A historically based content analysis was conducted to assess these groups with respect to a number of variables examining leader, group, organizational, and environmental attributes held to influence violence. Discriminant analyses revealed that violent ideological groups differed from comparison groups with respect to leader extremism, group righteousness, organizational indoctrination, and environmental conflict and disruption. Regression analyses revealed that these discriminant functions predicted a number of notable violent and ideological criteria. The implications of these findings for understanding the origins of violence in ideological groups are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Picasso's Guernica represents a potentially useful product for investigation by students of creative achievement. In the case of studies by Simonton (2007) and Weisberg and Hass (2007), both appearing in this same issue of the Creativity Research Journal, detailed examination of this picture has provided a basis for some bold statements about creative thought. In this commentary, we question the conclusions drawn by Simonton with respect to the application of historical case analysis, the methods applied, and the substantive model underlying this effort. More generally, we argue that caution is called for in attempting to account for creative achievement based on a single model of the kind of knowledge involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethical decision making measures are widely applied as the principal dependent variable used in studies of research integrity. However, evidence bearing on the internal and external validity of these measures is not available. In this study, ethical decision making measures were administered to 102 graduate students in the biological, health, and social sciences, along with measures examining exposure to ethical breaches and the severity of punishments recommended. The ethical decision making measure was found to be related to exposure to ethical events and the severity of punishments awarded. The implications of these findings for the application of ethical decision making measures are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: When deciding whether to pursue a new idea, people must predict the resources needed for, and consequences of, idea implementation. The intent of this study was to examine how accurate people are in predicting the resources needed for, and consequences of, creative ideas. Accordingly, 158 undergraduates were presented with case studies describing 3 new ideas drawn from either the education or public policy domains. They were asked to evaluate these ideas with respect to resource requirements (e.g., time, finances) and likely consequences (e.g., positive benefits, organizational disruption). The accuracy of these appraisals was assessed in terms of actual case events. It was found that people were more accurate in predicting resources and outcomes under conditions likely to engender implementation intentions, but that people overestimated outcomes and underestimated resource requirements when they had some familiarity with the issue. The implications of these observations for understanding errors in idea evaluation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Creative thought requires planning to support the refinement and successful implementation of new ideas. In this study, 174 people were given training intended to provide more effective strategies for executing two key skills held to be involved in implementation planning—penetration (e.g., identification of key causes) and forecasting. The quality and originality of the plans obtained on a transfer task, involving implementation of a new educational curriculum, were assessed. It was found that training forecasting strategies and penetration strategies proved particularly beneficial for creative people, as defined by scores of divergent thinking tests. The implications of these findings for understanding the role of planning in creative thought are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The experiences people have over the course of their careers are commonly held to contribute to creative achievement. In this study, an attempt was made to identify the career events contributing to creative achievement in the sciences. Prior theoretical and empirical work was used to identify relevant career events in the areas of education, domain exposure, mentoring, adversity, work procedures, collaboration, laboratory leadership, and organizational influences. Obituaries were obtained for 499 scientists working in multiple fields in the social, physical, life, and health sciences and were used to assess whether these events were evident in scientists' careers. Comparisons of high achieving and low achieving scientists with regard to these events indicated that multiple events lying in each of these general areas contributed to career achievement. The nature of the events yielding significant differences were discussed regarding their implications for the development of creative potential in scientific fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social innovations, new ideas about people's interactions, have begun to receive more attention in studies of creativity. This article considers the conclusions emerging from two recent books examining the history of two notable 20th century social innovations--the development of scientific management and the use of standardized tests for college admissions. We examine the implications of these books with respect to three key topics, (a) the generation of creative ideas about social interactions, (b) the factors influencing development of these ideas, and (c) the social settings that lead to acceptance and diffusion of these ideas. The implications of these observations for understanding social innovation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In "Where Have We Been, Where Are We Going To? Taking Stock in Creativity Research," the author attempted to use 2 recent handbook publications as a basis for drawing some general conclusions about the current state of affairs in creativity research. The commentaries provided by Eisenberger, Kaufmann, Runco, and Russ with regard to this review not only aptly illustrate some key points made in this feature article, but also provide some thought-provoking extensions of this review. In this reply, the author considers these commentaries with respect to both points of agreement and disagreement. With regard to points of disagreement, he stressed in his initial review, and would continue to stress, the practical, social aspects of creative work, as well as the need to reference creativity against products as opposed to potential. In agreement with the commentators, however, he would argue that creativity research has now progressed beyond the provisional hypotheses generation stage. Thus, the challenge confronting us is to bring about integration while simultaneously conducting research evidencing greater specificity with regard to processes, tasks, domains, and requisite dispositional characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dedicated work of numerous scholars has, over the last 10 years, led to some radical advances in our understanding of the nature and implications of creativity. This work has been summarized in 2 recent handbooks-Mark Runco's Creativity Research Handbook and Robert Sternberg's Handbook of Creativity. In this article I use these handbooks as a starting point to take stock in both what has been accomplished and what still needs to be done in our attempts to understand creativity. I begin by noting that both handbooks clearly describe the major approaches being used in studies of creativity and the findings resulting from each approach. A careful review of the chapters presented in these handbooks, however, brings to the fore a number of issues. For example, we need critical comparative tests contrasting the merits of different methods and theories, elaboration and extension of our traditional samples and our traditional measures, and more attempts to develop integrative models. However, some topics, such as the demands of practical innovation, cross-field differences in the nature of creative thought, and the effects of creativity on people and social systems need more thorough treatment. By laying a foundation for cumulative research along those lines, publication of these handbooks represents an important step toward development of a coherent, scientific model of the creative act. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students of creativity have examined innovation in the arts, sciences, and engineering. Social innovation, the generation and implementation of new ideas about social relationships and social organization, has received less attention. This effort uses a case study approach, drawing from the historic record provided by Benjamin Franklin, to formulate some initial hypotheses about the strategies and tactics used to generate and implement social innovations. It was found that Franklin identified problems based on practical need, analyzed causes carefully, generated contextually appropriate low-cost implementation strategies, and built the support needed for demonstration projects. The implications of these strategies and tactics for innovation in modern organizations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the course of his career, Guilford produced a remarkable body of research on creative thought. Today, this research is remembered primarily for its articulation of the notion that divergent thinking plays a key role in creative thought. However, a number of other capacities relevant to understanding creative thought were identified in the course of this research effort. In this article, I review this research program as a whole with special reference to those capacities that warrant more attention in current studies of creativity. Implications for current research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although integrity tests are widely applied in screening job applicants, there is a need for research for examining the construct validity of these tests. In the present study, a theoretical model examining the causes of destructive behavior in organizational settings was used to develop background data measures of individual and situational variables that might be related to integrity test scores. Subsequently, 692 undergraduates were asked to complete these background data scales along with (a) two overt integrity tests — the Reid Report and the Personnel Selection Inventory, and (b) two personality-based measures — the delinquency and socialization scales of the California Psychological Inventory. When scores of these measures were correlated with and regressed on the background data scales, it was found that relevant individual variables, such as narcissism and power motives, and relevant situational variables, such as alienation and exposure to negative peer groups, were related to scores on both types of integrity tests. However, a stronger pattern of validity evidence was obtained for the personality-based measures and, in all cases, situational variables were found to be better predictors than individual variables. The implications of these findings for the validity of inferences drawn from overt and personality-based integrity tests are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background data, or life history measures, ask people to recall and report prior behavior and experiences. Although these measures have been found to be effective predictors of performance, little is known about the characteristics of items contributing to accurate reporting and good recall. Accordingly, 153 undergraduates were asked to work on a complex, computer-based ‘in-basket’ task. In working through this task, objective indices of their activities were obtained. After completing this task, subjects were asked to answer a set of background data items describing their behavior and experiences during task performance. Additionally, they were asked to return one week later and, again, answer the background data questions. Indices of accuracy and recall consistency were obtained for various item types. In accordance with the literature of autobiographical memory, it was found that people could consistency recall and accurately report general summaries of activities and their reactions to the task. More specific actions or behaviors that were not linked to goals were not accurately and consistently recalled. The implications of these findings for the development and application of background data measures are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights studies on the cognitive mechanisms underlying creative thought. Models of creative thought; Educational implications of the model of creative thought.

The article presents the author's views on a reevaluation of the blind variation and selective retention model of creative thought. He argues that creative thought is too complex to be explained by the generation of blind variations. The author suggests that blind generation processes ignores the active evaluation and conscious thought required for human creative ability.

Problem construction has been determined to be an important process contributing to creative problem solving. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether problem construction plays a role in how individuals interpret ambiguous, ill-defined problems in a way that fits with their personality. We also hypothesized that solution quality and originality would be related not only to problem construction ability but also to the degree to which the solution fits the personality of the individual. Students who participated in this study (N=195) were asked to complete measures to identify personality types, a measure of problem construction ability, and a problem-solving exercise. Solutions were rated for fit of the solution to the personality, quality, and originality. Results suggest that problem construction ability is positively related to the fit of the solution to the personality type, and that solution quality and originality are related to both problem construction and solution fit. Implications of the role of problem construction in solving everyday problems are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although some evidence has been accrued for the validity of divergent-thinking tests, it has not been overwhelming. One problem with many of these studies is that they have not looked at divergent thinking in a population where creative problem solving is a requirement for performance. Another problem with many of these studies is that they have not focused on aspects of divergent thought that are most strongly related to performance in the domain at hand. Accordingly, in this study 1,818 organizational leaders were asked to complete a divergent-thinking measure. When performance indices obtained in this sample were correlated with scores on the divergent-thinking test, divergent thinking was found to predict performance, even when intelligence and expertise were taken into account. Furthermore, aspects of divergent thinking specifically related to leaders' creative problem-solving efforts, such as the use of principle-based alternatives, as well as complex and realistic alternatives, were found to be particularly good predictors of real-world performance. The implications of these findings for the development and application of divergent-thinking measures are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior studies have shown that process-based measures of creative problem-solving skills can be developed that evidence some predictive validity and contribute to our understanding of creative thought. These studies, however, have focused on a single process. Because multiple processes are involved in creative thought, there is a need to examine their joint impact. To address this issue, 137 undergraduates were asked to work on 2 creative problem-solving tasks and complete a battery of measures examining relevant abilities and processing skills. Solution quality and originality scores obtained from the creative problem-solving tasks were regressed on these measures. It was found that the measures of process application were effective predictors of solution quality and originality, yielding significant gains in prediction when added to ability tests. The implications of these findings for the assessment of creative potential are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies suggest that the combination and reorganization of extant knowledge structures may play an important role in creative thought. Little evidence is available, however, suggesting that performance on tasks where people are asked to combine and reorganize categories is related to creative thinking. Further, it is unclear how people go about combining and reorganizing diverse categories. In this study, 112 undergraduates were asked to work on a set of category combination problems. The relatedness of the categories was manipulated, and instructions were presented about how to go about combining these categories. Subsequently, people were asked to solve a series of novel, ill-defined problems. It was found that performance on the category combination task was related to the quality and originality of problem solutions. Further, when people were working with related categories, feature mapping instructions contributed to performance, while metaphor instructions contributed to performance when people were working with diverse categories. The implications of these findings for understanding creative thought are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problem construction has been suggested as the first step in creative problem solving, but our understanding of the underlying process is limited. According to a model of problem construction (Mumford, Reiter-Palmon, & Redmond, 1994), problem construction ability, active engagement in problem construction, and the presence of diverse and inconsistent cues influence creative problem solving. To test these hypotheses, 195 undergraduates were asked to solve 6 real-life problems and complete a measure of problem construction ability. Active engagement in problem construction was manipulated by instructions to the participants. Cue consistency was manipulated by the information presented in the problem situation. The quality, originality, and creativity of the solutions were evaluated. Results indicated that problem construction ability was related to higher quality solutions as well as solutions rated as more original. Problem construction ability also interacted with cue consistency such that individuals with high problem construction ability produced solutions of higher quality and originality when faced with inconsistent cues. The implication of these findings to our understanding of creative problem solving and the problem construction process are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because people must organize information and combine or reorganize categories to produce creative solutions, there is reason to suspect that concepts play an important role in creative thought. Unfortunately, little is known about the kind of concepts that contribute to the success of people' s creative problem-solving efforts. Accordingly, 135 college students were presented with a series of novel, ill-defined problems in which they were asked to select a set of concepts they thought would help them solve these problems. These indices of concept preferences were then correlated with the quality and originality of the solutions obtained on a set of two creative problem-solving tasks. The use of concepts organized around long-term goals was positively related to indices of solution quality and originality. The implications of these findings for understanding the kind of concepts that contribute to creative thought are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the effects of information encoding on creative thought. Types of information accounted for variance in performance; Link of time spent reading through and reviewing certain types of information with performance on a series of creative problem-solving tasks; Discussion on the implications of findings for understanding creative thought.

Focuses on the process-based measures of creative problem-solving skills. Standard measures of ability and divergent thinking skills; Discussion on the assessment of processing skills; Implications for understanding the problem construction process.

Comments on the influence of situational causation on creativity. Impact of social attributions on the assessment of creativity; Effect of dress-for-success approach on the evaluative process of creativity; Role of the individual on creative achievement.

Available evidence indicates that the combination and reorganization of extant knowledge structures plays an important role in the generation of new ideas. This study was intended to test a model of the operations held to influence application of the combination-and-reorganization process. Accordingly, 155 undergraduates were asked to solve 12 category combination problems. The instructions given to subjects were manipulated to influence application of three operations held to influence the originality of category combinations: feature identification, feature mapping, and feature elaboration. The relatedness of the categories presented was also manipulated. We found that solution quality was consistently influenced by category interrelatedness and, under conditions restricting the pool of available relations, category elaboration. Feature identification and feature mapping were found to influence solution originality but not solution quality. The implications of these findings for understanding creative problem solving and the combination-and-reorganization process are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the importance of training programs to develop the skill performance of a person. Examination on the influence of differentia; characteristics on skill acquisition; Evaluation on the stages of practice; Discussion on the role of personality in skill acquisition.

Examines the influence of personality constructs on the performance of complex problem-solving tasks. Maintenance of good performance; Factors contributing to adaptability; Acquisition of knowledge and skills.

Focuses on the predictors of leadership behavior. Measurement of adolescent leadership activities; Social problems confronting individuals in leadership roles; Comparison of the leadership performance between males and females.

Determines the validity of job classification systems. Clustering process of allocating tasks; Impact of division of labor on industrial-organizational psychology; Typologies of occupational classification.

Looks into the implications of the structure of life history for the construct validity of background data scales in determining human performance. Pattern of behavior and experiences; Systematic application of construct validation principles; Generation of techniques for applying background data measures.

Reexamines the research program of Fleischman and his associates on relations between abilities and performance at different stages of learning. Proposal of a model to reconcile contradictory findings; Validity of the Fleischman's findings; Conceptualization on predictions of job performance over time.

Examines cognitive capacities that contribute to creative problem solving. Characteristics needed to maintain creative problem-solving efforts in gifted and talented students; Implications of observations for the development of creative talent.

Describes the nature of cognitive processes and their implications for educational interventions. Definition of creativity; Role of cognitive processes in creative thought; Processes contributing to creativity; Factors that inhibit effective application of the problem construction process.

The intent of the present study was to determine whether the selective aggregation of background data subgroups could be used to identify and control for differences across persons in the meaning of religious involvement. After background data subgroups had been clustered based on similarity in the variables related to religious involvement, two clusters were identified. One cluster contained individuals whose religious involvement was characterized by a functional, instrumental orientation, while the other was composed of individuals whose religious involvement was characterized by an affective, expressive orientation. Subsequently, causal models intended to describe continuity and change in religious involvement were constructed using individuals assigned to each cluster. It was found that different models were required to describe continuity and change in religious involvement in the instrumental and expressive clusters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using biographical data collected in late adolescence and young adulthood, prototypes or subgroups of individuals with similar patterns of prior behaviors and experiences were empirically identified. The prototypes are described, and the pathways taken by the prototypes from adolescence to adulthood are examined. Focusing on the various pathways or trajectories followed by different prototypes, we discuss implications of prototype membership for continuity and change in personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines how learning styles influence the relationship between abilities and task performance. Contribution of perceptual speed to task performance for subjects who massed their practice; Contribution of spatial visualization to performance of subjects who distributed their practice; Role of abilities in skill acquisition.

The authors comment on the article "Assessing Creativity with Divergent Thinking Tasks: Exploring the Reliability and Validity of New Subjective Scoring Methods," by Paul J. Silvia et al, which is published within the issue. The authors think that the study does not represent a comprehensive assessment of the construct validity of the proposed scoring system. They comment on the validation efforts used in the study, as well as, the generalizability of evidence provided in the study.

The article explains the origin of socially destructive debates and shows a method of arriving into an effective problem-solving manner of abortion debating. Psychologists, sociologists and students of political science have all sought to understand the nature and origin of socially destructive acts. Destructive acts, at both a social and individual level, have in common certain key characteristics. Like many socially destructive debates, the abortion debate has generated rhetoric but has effectively prohibited requisite basic research. These observations should not be taken to imply that there is an easy solution to the problem of abortion or for that matter, a single solution for all societies at all times.

Forecasting is an integral component to idea evaluation and has been shown to positively impact creative performance. However, less is known about what set of conditions, namely forecasting timing and valence, maximizes the impact that forecasting has on creative performance. Along related lines, much is unknown about how quality and originality standards applied in idea evaluation interact with forecasting approaches to impact forecasting performance, idea evaluation, and creativity. In the present study, undergraduates were asked to take on the role of a restaurant development consultant and to develop a plan for a new restaurant concept. Participant forecast quality and extensiveness, idea evaluation quality, depth and range, and final plan quality, originality, and elegance were evaluated. Before formulating final plans, participants were asked to forecast either positive, negative, or both positive and negative outcomes of their generated ideas either as each individual idea was generated or after the final list of potential ideas had been generated. Then, participants evaluated each of their ideas with respect to quality or originality standards. It was found that forecasting both positive and negative outcomes during idea generation improves forecasting performance, idea evaluation, and plan elegance. The implications of these findings for understanding forecasting and creative problem solving are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has demonstrated the importance of forecasting to creative problem-solving performance. Less is known about how case analysis and outcome valence impact forecasting performance. In this study, 266 participants were asked to assume the role of a Marketing Director of a clothing company and develop a marketing campaign for entering a new market. Prior to developing this final campaign, participants were asked to analyze company cases, develop an outline of their plan, and forecast the implications of this plan. Although manipulations did not impact final problem solutions, analysis of weaknesses of present company operations and generation of positive outcomes were found to contribute to the highest levels of forecasting. In turn, forecasting was found to predict the quality, originality, and elegance of final marketing plans. The implications of these findings for encouraging people to engage in forecasting are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is often assumed creative performance is error free. Even a cursory inspection of eminent, creative, individuals indicates errors permeate creative efforts. In the present effort, the impact of error management on creative problem-solving is examined. Undergraduates, 136 in all, were asked to work through 10 potential problem solutions where half the solutions evidenced errors and half did not. Participants were asked to identify potential errors, deliberate on these errors, and remediate, or fix, errors prior to providing solutions to a problem calling for creative thought. It was found the number of errors correctly identified, and the quality of error remediation was positively related to the quality, originality, and elegance of problem solutions. More extensive deliberation, however, was found to be especially important for the production of original problem solutions. The implications of these observations for understanding the importance of error management in creative problem-solving are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although scholars have identified many variables that contribute to creative problem-solving, less attention has been given to variables that might lead to failure in creative problem-solving. One set of variables that might lead to poor performance in creative problem-solving efforts may be found in various decision biases. In this study, the impact of simple and complex decision biases on the production of original, high-quality, and elegant solutions to a creative problem-solving task was examined in a sample of 227 undergraduates attending a large southwestern university. In addition, the value of forecasting instruction as a technique for reducing these decision biases was examined. It was found that both simple and complex decisions biases resulted in problem solutions of lower originality, quality, and elegance. Training in viable forecasting strategies resulted in the production of higher quality problem solutions. The implications of these findings for improving creative problem-solving performance are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior studies have examined the impacts of sensemaking processes, such as forecasting, on ethical decision making (EDM) but only a few have considered how aspects of the ethical issue itself, such as social consensus and magnitude of consequences, might interact with sensemaking processes to influence EDM. The present effort examines both forecasting and moral intensity, as well as their interactions, during the EDM process. Participants in this study were given an ethical scenario with either a high or low degree of social consensus as well as a greater or smaller magnitude of consequences. They were then asked to forecast either many or few potential outcomes stemming from their actions before coming up with a final plan of action. Responses were rated for quality of forecasting, use of metacognitive reasoning strategies, perceived moral intensity, and ethicality. Results indicate that social consensus may not be beneficial for EDM if the magnitude of consequences is low or individuals are not engaged in extensive forecasting. Implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although, traditionally, constraints are held to inhibit creative thinking, more recent research indicates that constraints can, at times, prove beneficial. Constraints, however, come in many forms. In the present study, 318 undergraduates were asked to develop advertising campaigns for a new product, a high-energy root beer, where campaigns were evaluated for quality, originality, and elegance. Prior to starting work on these campaigns different constraints were, or were not imposed, with constraints being established based on fundamentals in marketing, themes in marketing, environmental information, and task objec-tives. It was found that task objective constraints resulted in better creative problem solving when participants were motivated. However, imposition of multiple constraints led to poorer creative problem solving. Thus the number and nature of the constraints imposed on creative problems must be balanced. The implications of these observations for understanding creative problem solving are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Innovation has become increasingly important to the survival of organizations. Leaders must manage the process in a series of planning stages. These stages are qualitatively different and thus, have implications for what the leader must think about and do. The relevant leader cognition and social behaviors are discussed, as they must change throughout the process of planning for innovation. In order for leaders to effectively and efficiently manage innovation, they must be able to recognize and adapt to the varying requirements. Existing discrepancies in the literature may be resolved when considered within the context of these stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]