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Illegal wildlife crime is a global phenomenon, accelerating the ongoing biodiversity crisis. In the Old World, and particularly in Africa, illegal use of poisons to eliminate carnivores is the main driver of the continental vulture crisis. Knowledge about the underlying source and drivers of this threat is lacking for most areas, including Kenya, a global vulture and biodiversity hotspot. An extensive questionnaire survey of over 1300 respondents was run, using a specialized questioning technique and quantitative analytical approaches. Results show that, while pastoralists have a positive attitude towards vultures, over 20% of them use poisons to eliminate predators. Poisoning was largely driven by livestock losses to predators, and by negative attitude towards predators. Poisoning was less prevalent among respondents aware of the Kenya Wildlife Act. Overall, we suggest that a combination of top-down, e.g. legislation, and bottom-up (such as corrals or compensation) along with awareness campaigns may help reduce poisoning on the ground.

This study addresses for the first time the movement patterns of the globally near‐threatened Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in its most important stronghold, the high‐altitude mountain ranges of Asia. Tracked individuals (n = 8) in the Annapurna Himalayan range (Nepal) foraged over a vast range of 60 715.9 km² and our results indicated age‐class differences in the use of space. Territorial adults showed very small annual home‐ranges (K90 = 150.3 km²), whereas immatures wandered extensively and covered vast ranges of the mountains (K90 = 23 930.8 km²). For adults and immatures, these values are notably larger than the other two studied populations in the world (Pyrenees and South Africa). This suggests that the studied Annapurna population might exhibit lower breeding density than in the Pyrenees or South Africa, possibly due to lower food availability.

Most raptor populations are declining and nearly a fifth are threatened with extinction; thus there is a need to increase collaboration to ensure efficient and effective research, management, and conservation. Here, we introduce the Global Raptor Impact Network (GRIN; www.globalraptors.org), a tool to enhance collaboration and conservation impact of the raptor research community. We provide an overview of the history and current state of GRIN, including plans for expansion. Predecessors to GRIN include The African Raptor DataBank, which was launched in 2012 to ascertain the conservation status of raptors across Africa; and the Global Raptor Information Network, which was launched in the late 1990s as a website to provide information regarding diurnal raptors and facilitate communication among researchers. GRIN expands the data collection and storage capabilities of the African Raptor DataBank to a global scale via mobile application. We have implemented data-sharing rules to ensure the safety of sensitive species, and users of the GRIN mobile app can designate their records as confidential. GRIN staff and partners are developing analyses of species' population trends and geographic distributions to aid in conservation assessments. GRIN is also developing systematic reviews, detailed bibliographies, and online accounts that will summarize the state of knowledge for each raptor species. We hope that GRIN will benefit the entire raptor research community and aid in the collaboration necessary to help raptor populations thrive in the Anthropocene.

Quantitative studies on nesting habitat selection are important to understand and predict the resource requirements for breeding habitat. In this study, we analysed nest‐site (cliff) and territory selection patterns of the Bearded Vulture in the Annapurna Range of the Himalayas (Nepal). Our study area represents high‐elevation mountain range systems, where information on nest selection is lacking, despite having the largest remaining populations of Bearded Vultures in the world. Our models indicated selection patterns at both nest and territory spatial scales that are consistent with previous studies at lower altitudes (Pyrenees, the Caucasus), such as a preference for landscape patches with greater food availability. However, our models also indicated selection patterns that are probably a response to the higher altitudes and sheer reliefs of the Annapurna massif, such as avoidance of the steepest slopes and selection of cliffs facing south and west for nest‐sites. We did not detect an impact of human activities on the distribution of nests or territories. However, the Annapurna massif is experiencing development of infrastructures (e.g. road construction). Further research efforts will be needed to monitor human impacts on Bearded Vulture populations in the Annapurna Range, as this is a global stronghold for this species.

Migration of ungulates (hooved mammals) is a fundamental ecological process that promotes abundant herds, whose effects cascade up and down terrestrial food webs. Migratory ungulates provide the prey base that maintains large carnivore and scavenger populations and underpins terrestrial biodiversity (fig. S1). When ungulates move in large aggregations, their hooves, feces, and urine create conditions that facilitate distinct biotic communities. The migrations of ungulates have sustained humans for thousands of years, forming tight cultural links among Indigenous people and local communities. Yet ungulate migrations are disappearing at an alarming rate (1). Efforts by wildlife managers and conservationists are thwarted by a singular challenge: Most ungulate migrations have never been mapped in sufficient detail to guide effective conservation. Without a strategic and collaborative effort, many of the world's great migrations will continue to be truncated, severed, or lost in the coming decades. Fortunately, a combination of animal tracking datasets, historical records, and local and Indigenous knowledge can form the basis for a global atlas of migrations, designed to support conservation action and policy at local, national, and international levels.

Background Despite our understanding of the principal factors that shape bird migration strategies, there is conflicting evidence regarding the role of habitat in shaping migration routes and schedules, including day and night activity and differences between autumn and spring. For fly-and-forage migrants, we predict that habitat characteristics might guide migration speed, route selection and migrating schedules. Methods We use solar-powered GPS transmitters, obtaining high accuracy data, to monitor the migratory movements of Eleonora’s falcon breeding in Cyprus, which is the easternmost breeding population of the species. We tested for potential preferences in habitat characteristics along the migration routes, separately for the northern, drier part and the more vegetated southern part of the trips. We also examined the relationship between migration speed and vegetative cover during day and at night, accounting for wind support. Results We found that tagged individuals repeatedly exhibited an anticlockwise loop migration pattern with spring routes being more easterly than autumn ones. We identified a preference for migration through vegetation-rich areas, where during daytime tagged individuals travel at slower migration speeds compared to vegetation-poor areas, indicating fly-and-forage activity. Birds roosted during most nights, combining refueling stopovers at selected vegetation-rich areas before or after crossing ecological barriers. Conversely, both during day and night, tagged individuals overflew unsuitable habitats more quickly. Conclusions Our results suggest that habitat is an important factor in Eleonora’s falcon migratory strategies. Active selection of vegetation rich areas in combination with reduced migration speeds there, allows the migrating falcons to combine migration during the day with fly-and-forage refueling, while roosting most nights.

Raptors provide critical ecosystem services, yet there is currently no systematic, global synthesis of their conservation status or threats. We review the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List to examine the conservation status, distributions, threats, and conservation recommendations for all 557 raptor species. We further assess the significance of Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) for raptor conservation. We also determine which countries contain the most species listed under the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU). Raptors, especially Old World vultures, are more threatened than birds in general. Eighteen percent of raptors are threatened with extinction and 52% of raptors have declining global populations. South and Southeast Asia have the highest richness and the largest number of threatened raptor species. By country, Indonesia has the highest richness of raptor species (119) and most declining species (63). China and Russia contain the most Raptors MoU species, although they are not yet signatories to the agreement. Raptor species that require forest are more likely to be threatened and declining than those that do not. Agriculture and logging are the most frequently identified threats, although poisoning is especially detrimental to Old World vultures. Of the 10 most important IBAs for raptors, six are in Nepal. Highest priority conservation actions to protect raptors include preventing mortality and conserving key sites and priority habitats. Improved long-term monitoring would allow for conservation to be appropriately targeted and effectiveness of interventions to be assessed.

Global biodiversity is threatened by unsustainable exploitation for subsistence and commerce, and tropical forests are facing a hunting crisis. In Central African forests, hunting pressure has been quantified by monitoring changes in the abundance of affected species and by studying wild meat consumption, trade and hunter behaviour. However, a proportion of offtake is also discarded as bycatch or consumed by hunters when working, which can be overlooked by these methods. For example, remains of hornbills and raptors are found regularly in hunting camps but relatively few birds are consumed in households or traded in markets. Hornbill and raptor populations are sensitive to small increases in mortality because of their low intrinsic population growth rates, however, the scale and socioeconomic drivers of the cryptic hunting pressure affecting these species have not been quantified. We used direct and indirect questioning and mixed-effects models to quantify the socioeconomic predictors, scale and seasonality of illegal bird hunting and consumption in Littoral Region, Cameroon. We predicted that younger, unemployed men with low educational attainment (i.e. hunters) would consume birds more often than other demographics, and that relative offtake would be higher than expected based on results from village and market-based studies. We found that birds were primarily hunted and consumed by unemployed men during the dry season but, in contrast to expectations, we found that hunting prevalence increased with educational attainment. Within unemployed men educated to primary level (240 of 675 respondents in 19 villages), we estimated an average of 29 hornbills and eight raptors (compared with 19 pangolins) were consumed per month during the study period (Feb–Jun 2015) in a catchment of c.1135 km2. We conclude that large forest birds face greater hunting pressure than previously recognised, and birds are a regular source of protein for men during unemployment. Offtake levels may be unsustainable for some raptors and hornbills based on life history traits but in the absence of sufficient baseline ecological and population data we recommend that a social-ecological modeling approach is used in future to quantify hunting sustainability.

Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) populations are declining across most of the species' global range. We studied Bearded Vultures in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal using line-transect distance sampling, and quantified the perceptions of threats to the species by interviewing local people in two different elevational areas. We recorded 35 Bearded Vultures (26 adults, 5 non-adults, 4 birds of unknown age) along a 168-km transect, yielding an encounter rate of 0.21 individuals/km. Based on distance sampling, we estimated a vulture density of 0.184 individuals/km2 in the study area. Local people in the two areas perceived population status and threats to the Bearded Vulture differently. At the lower elevational range (1398-2108 m), people perceived that the vulture population is declining and that the major threats are food shortage and secondary poisoning via the use of poisons by livestock herders to kill mammalian carnivores. At higher elevations (2538-3813 m), people perceived that the vulture population is stable with no lack of food; there also was a larger prevalence of the use of vulture body parts for traditional medicine in this area. Our study suggests that unintentional poisoning, food shortage, and use of vulture body parts are the primary threats to the Bearded Vulture in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal.

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Africa supports breeding populations of over 20% of all raptor species globally and over 20 regular Palearctic migratory raptors. Here, we discuss the importance of Africa in terms of the diversity of both resident and migrant species, the ecosystem services they provide, and the threats they face. We examine the state of knowledge of African raptors, including monitoring to determine trends, and describe ongoing research. African raptors provide important ecosystem services, by bringing in tourism revenues, functioning as bio-indicator species, and controlling the spread of pathogens and pest species. Many species are under pressure from growing human populations and associated habitat loss, persecution, and pollution. Most are declining, with some exceptions, some catastrophically so, such as vultures. Of 66 African species, 26% are currently on the IUCN Red List. For many species, there is a need for their conservation status to be re-evaluated, but rigorous monitoring for most of Africa is generally lacking. A systematic literature review showed considerable variation in the number of studies per species, 36% of 67 species having been relatively “well-studied” (12 or more studies), but 64% with less than 10 studies. There has been a general and consistent increase in the numbers of studies on African raptors, the majority from Southern Africa (n = 466, 62%). We found most studies focused on feeding ecology (n= 247) and distribution and abundance, with the least number of studies on behaviour and movement ecology. We list some ongoing studies and conclude that developing future leadership in research and conservation will be critical for successful raptor conservation in Africa.

Vultures provide critical ecosystem services, yet populations of many species have collapsed worldwide. We present the first estimates of a 30-year PanAfrican vulture decline, confirming that declines have occurred on a scale broadly comparable with those seen in Asia, where the ecological, economic, and human costs are already documented. Populations of eight species we assessed had declined by an average of 62%; seven had declined at a rate of 80% or more over three generations. Of these, at least six appear to qualify for uplisting to Critically Endangered. Africa’s vultures are facing a range of specific threats, the most significant of which are poisoning and trade in traditional medicines, which together accounted for 90% of reported deaths. We recommend that national governments urgently enact and enforce legislation to strictly regulate the sale and use of pesticides and poisons, to eliminate the illegal trade in vulture body parts, as food or medicine, and to minimize mortality caused by power lines and wind turbines.

The commercial bushmeat trade threatens numerous species in the forests of West and Central Africa. Hunters shoot and trap animals, which are transported to rural and urban markets for sale. Village-based surveys of hunter offtake and surveys of bushmeat markets have shown that mammals and reptiles are affected most, followed by birds. However, hunters also consume some animals in forest camps and these may have been overlooked in surveys that have focused on bushmeat extracted from the forest. A number of studies have used indirect methods, such as hunter diaries, to quantify this additional offtake but results can be difficult to verify. We examined discarded animal remains at 13 semi-permanent hunting camps in the Ebo Forest, Cameroon, over 272 days. Twenty-one species were identified from 49 carcasses, of which birds constituted 55%, mammals 43% and other taxa 2%. The mammals identified were typical of those recorded in previous bushmeat studies but we recorded several species of birds rarely recorded elsewhere. Offtake of bird species increased with mean body mass. We extrapolated our results to the 34 known hunting camps in the Ebo Forest and estimated that a minimum of 97 birds are hunted annually in a catchment area of c. 479 km2. We conclude that some bird species may be hunted more frequently than previous research suggests and this has important conservation implications for larger-bodied species such as raptors and hornbills.

Habitat associations of birds were quantified through fixed-radius timed bird counts at Mara Naboisho Conservancy within the Greater Mara Region, Kenya. We conducted 73 timed counts in four distinct habitats (riparian, woodland, rocky outcrop and plains) in both dry and wet seasons. During this survey, we observed 188 species of birds of which 140 were recorded during the timed counts. The riparian zone had the highest species richness, more than three times that of the plains. The woodlands and rocky outcrops had similar species richness. The mean number of species seen per count was higher in the riparian zone compared with the other three habitats. Bird species composition in the riparian zone and the plains were distinct from each other and from the woodlands and rocky outcrops, although they overlapped significantly in the last two mentioned habitats. The possible conservation implication of an increasing and/or immigrant elephant population and its likely effect on the vegetation is discussed in relation to bird community composition.Keywords: bird community, habitat associations, Masai Mara, Naboisho Conservancy

Large avian scavengers are among the most vulnerable vertebrates, and many of their populations have declined severely in recent decades. To help mitigate this marked reduction in abundance, supplementary feeding stations (SFS; colloquially termed >vulture restaurants>) have been created worldwide, often without consideration of the scientific evidence supporting the suitability of the practice. SFS have been effective and important tools for conservation and reintroduction of avian scavengers. However, negative consequences can result from large aggregations of individual birds, disrupting intraguild processes and promoting density-dependent decreases in productivity. At the community level, SFS favor the congregation of predators (ie facultative scavengers), increasing predation risk on small- and medium-sized vertebrates in the vicinity of the SFS. These feeding stations might also affect processes of natural selection and even render populations maladapted to their natural environments. We also examine future scenarios for avian scavengers in relation to ecosystem services, to changes in agro-grazing economies and in land uses, and ultimately to rewilding landscapes where SFS play a controversial role.

SummaryThe cliff-nesting Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus is one of four critically endangered Asian Vultures. In India, this species has declined catastrophically, but in Pakistan only small population declines have been recorded. Mortality of this species has been linked to poisoning by veterinary diclofenac, which was banned throughout south Asia in 2006. Between 2003 and 2012 we measured abundance of adult, sub-adult, juvenile, and dead vultures, and nest occupancy and productivity at the largest known Long-billed Vulture colony in Pakistan. We compared population parameters from before (2003−2006) and after (2007−2012) the ban on veterinary diclofenac. Our data and models indicate that vulture abundance, nest occupancy, and nest productivity declined 61%, 73%, and 95%, respectively, in the three years before the diclofenac ban, and then increased 1–2 years after the ban by 55%, 52%, and 95%. Furthermore, we observed 87% of total vulture mortalities prior to the diclofenac ban. Our results demonstrate for the first time since the onset of the Asian vulture crisis that the ban on veterinary diclofenac is an effective management tool for reversing Long-billed Vulture population declines.

SummaryClimate change is predicted to have serious impacts on the conservation status of numerous species of birds, particularly low-density, range-restricted species occupying narrow habitats. One such species is the globally “Endangered” Sokoke Scops Owl Otus ireneae that currently survives in just two or three small pockets of forest in coastal Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania. We assessed the potential impact of changes in future climate on this species using predictive niche modelling. Distributional data were obtained from various published and unpublished sources, and field surveys. Maximum Entropy (Maxent) was used to model the current distribution of Sokoke Scops Owl. A general circulation model was used to predict the distribution of this species in 2080. This scenario predicts a southward shift in the future distribution of this species in Kenya and a complete disappearance from the Usambara mountains in Tanzania, with a concomitant 64% reduction in areas of high environmental suitability. Considering the isolated nature of the forest fragments in which this owl survives and the sea of inhospitable human-modified habitat which surrounds these fragments, the future conservation prospects of this species are bleak. Close monitoring of the species is strongly recommended and potential conservation interventions are discussed.

Because of the high, albeit seasonal, availability of carcasses, the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, Kenya, has a high diversity of scavengers, leading to considerable competition between species. From patterns of occurrence of vultures at 163 carcasses over an 8-year period in the Masai Mara National Reserve, we were able to identify some mechanisms that may reduce competition. Species are associated on the basis of similar dietary needs and beak morphology, and they are highly interdependent, showing little evidence of disassociation. Social vultures (genus Gyps) dominated the vulture scene at the reserve; they were more abundant at carcasses when migratory ungulates were present in the dry season, when more carcasses are likely to be available, than when migratory ungulates were absent. In addition, regardless of the predator's identity, presence of a predator reduced the number of vultures, suggesting that vultures prefer carrion not killed by predators where available. Comparisons between past an...

SummaryVulture populations have been declining globally and regionally within Africa. Rüppell’s Vulture Gyps rueppellii is currently listed as ‘Near Threatened’ and numbers of the species, along with African White-backed Vultures G. africanus, have declined by 52% in and around the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem. A large breeding colony of Rüppell’s Vulture at Kwenia, southern Kenya, was monitored between 2002 and 2009. Around 150–200 adults were present on each visit, with up to 64 simultaneously active nests. The date of egg-laying differed considerably between years, with two discrete breeding attempts in some years. Nests were not positioned randomly across the cliff face and the number of active nests was related to rainfall in the previous year. The large ungulate migration of the Mara-Serengeti provides a vital foraging ground for the species. Conservation implications of the loss of vultures are discussed.

We used GSM-GPS transmitters to study mortality in three species of vultures in Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. GSM-GPS transmitters were a cost-effective alternative to traditional satellite telemetry. In combination with data from a wing-tagging study, GSM-GPS units provided evidence of high mortality in African vultures, particularly White-backed Vultures (Gyps africanus) and Lappet-faced Vultures (Torgos tracheliotos). Four of seventy-eight wing-tagged vultures were reported dead in a 6-yr period following attachment, whereas 4 of 17 GSM-GPS-tagged vultures were confirmed dead within a year of attachment, based on collection of dead bird or unit, indicating annual mortality of up to 33% for some species in East Africa. Poisoning was confirmed as the cause of death in four of these cases and was suspected in the majority of deaths recorded.

Following recent concerns of chemical pollution around Lake Naivasha, especially originating from recent agricultural activities in the catchment, samples of water, sediments, and fish Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) were collected from the Hippo Point, Kasarani, Mouth of Malewa River, Mouth of Karati River, Crescent Island, Sher Karuturi Discharge outlet and Oserian Bay for analysis of Cu, Cd and Pb by FAAS. The mean heavy metal levels ranged from 5.12–58.11 (Pb), 1.06–1.73 (Cd), and

Vultures are nature’s most successful scavengers, and they provide an array of ecological, economic, and cultural services. As the only known obligate scavengers, vultures are uniquely adapted to a scavenging lifestyle. Vultures’ uniqueadaptationsincludesoaringflight,keeneyesight,andextremelylowpHlevelsintheirstomachs.Presently,14 of23(61%)vulturespeciesworldwidearethreatenedwithextinction,andthemostrapiddeclineshaveoccurredinthe vulture-rich regions of Asia and Africa. The reasons for the population declines are varied, but poisoning or human persecution, or both, feature in the list of nearly every declining species. Deliberate poisoning of carnivores is likely the most widespread cause of vulture poisoning. In Asia, Gyps vultures have declined by >95% due to poisoning by the veterinary drug diclofenac, which was banned by regional governments in 2006. Human persecution of vultures hasoccurredforcenturies,andshootinganddeliberatepoisoningarethemostwidelypracticedactivities.Ecological consequences of vulture declines include changes in community composition of scavengers at carcasses and an increased potential for disease transmission between mammalian scavengers at carcasses. There have been cultural and economic costs of vulture declines as well, particularly in Asia. In the wake of catastrophic vulture declines in Asia, regional governments, the international scientific and donor communities, and the media have given the crisis substantial attention. Even though the Asian vulture crisis focused attention on the plight of vultures worldwide, the situation for African vultures has received relatively little attention especially given the similar levels of population decline. While the Asian crisis has been largely linked to poisoning by diclofenac, vulture population declines in Africa have numerous causes, which have made conserving existing populations more difficult. And in Africa there has been little government support to conserve vultures despite mounting evidence of the major threats. In other regions with successful vulture conservation programs, a common theme is a huge investment of financial resources and highly skilled personnel, as well as political will and community support.

The increasing number of incidences of alleged wildlife poisoning with Furadan in Kenya has sparked off a strong lobby fronted by wildlife conservationists against Furadan use in the country and prompted this study. The worst-case scenario was in 2004 in Athi River, where a massive number of 187 African white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) and hyenas were found dead at a spot where poisoning was suspected to have occurred through a Furadan-laced camel carcass bait. This study was initiated by the Peregrine Fund—Africa Project, and the objective was to provide evidence for Furadan exposure, its misuse and involvement in vulture poisoning and potential impact on areas near two wildlife conservancies in two most affected districts. The study found evidence for ready availability of Furadan 5G in local veterinary retail shops and its illegal misuse by pastoralists and farmers against wildlife to protect their animals and crops. Analysis of soil, water and plants taken from the farms and water sources by high-perfomance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) found residues of carbofuran, 3-hydroxycarbofuran and 3-ketocarbofuran, indicating that Furadan was used extensively in farming causing residual environmental distribution and contamination and posing risks to small birds and mammals. Forensic analysis of residues in beaks, feet and crop content of the dead vultures as well as in a laced camel carcass bait and soil samples from one site of poisoning also showed carbofuran and its two metabolites supporting allegations of Furadan involvement in wildlife poisoning and high-mortality cases of African white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) in Kenya.

Vulture population declines have been noted in West and Southern Africa, but have not been assessed in East Africa. Roadside transects conducted in 1976 and 1988 were compared with surveys done from 2003–2005 in and around Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Staggering declines in abundance were found for seven of eight scavenging raptors surveyed. No Egyptian vultures were seen during recent transects. We compared trends between the ungulate migration and non-migration season among three land use types (reserve, buffer, and grazed) and among the species surveyed to establish the causes of declines in scavenging raptors. Large declines during the ungulate migratory period suggest that most scavenging raptor species are declining well beyond the area of study. For all species, except Hooded vultures, substantial declines outside of the reserve indicate an important role of land use change in causing observed declines. In addition, significant declines of populations of Gyps species in the reserve itself, especially during the migration season, provide evidence that human activities occurring in other parts of the species’ range such as poisoning of carcasses may be causing their decline. Declines found in this study suggest that at a minimum African white-backed, Ruppell’s, and Hooded vultures should be relisted as Vulnerable. Management actions that limit land use change around the reserve combined with a countrywide ban on carbamate pesticides will be important for conserving keystone members of the scavenging guild. Future research should further examine possible causes of these declines and quantify the effect of reduced scavenging raptor abundance on scavenging efficiency.

Vulture populations have declined globally as well as regionally within Africa. Little is known about the status of the African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus in Kenya, but ongoing studies indicate that its population has declined over the last two decades. A total of 32 African White-backed Vulture nests were monitored in the Masai Mara National Reserve over a five-year period between 2003 and 2007. Mean nesting success was 59%, which is comparable to that of populations from southern Africa. Nearest neighbour distances were significantly closer in wooded habitats (‘trees and shrubs savanna’) than in more open grassland habitats (‘open low shrubs’). Based on nearest neighbour distances, the estimated total breeding population within the Masai Mara National Reserve is 1 106 pairs, a figure that may be an overestimate and requires ground-truthing. Collecting baseline data on numbers of breeding pairs and regular nest monitoring are essential in order to assess the impact of various threats to vultures...

(2010). Disconcerting trends in populations of the endangered Sokoke Scops OwlOtus ireneae in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya. Ostrich: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp. 155-158.

Forensic analysis of carbofuran residues in weathered tissue samples for evidence of Furadan exposure in vultures (Gps africanus) by HPLC gave concentration (mg/Kg dry tissue weight) ranges of bdl - 0.07 (carbofuran), bdl - 0.499 (3-ketocarbofuran) and 0.013-0.147 (3-hydroxycarbofuran) in beaks, bdl-0.65 (carbofuran), 0.024-0.190 (3-ketocarbofuran) and 0.017-0.098 (3-hydroxycarbofuran) in feet, 0.179-0.219 (3-ketocarbofuran) and 0.081-0.093 (3-hydroxycarbofuran) in crop content, 0.078-0.082 (3-ketocarbofuran) and 0.091-0.101 (3-hydroxycarbofuran) in muscle of a laced carcass and 0.006-0.014 (carbofuran), 0.590-1.010 (3-ketocarbofuran) and 0.095-0.135 (3-hydroxycarbofuran) in soil sampled from a poisoning site. These compounds were confirmed by GC-MS. The results showed that HPLC combined with GC-MS is suitable for forensic analysis of carbofuran residues in bird tissue samples and that forensic investigation should include its two toxic metabolites, 3-hydroxycarbofuran and 3-ketocarbofuran.

This study was undertaken to determine the concentrations of carbofuran residues in water, soil and plant samples from selected sites in the farmlands in Kenya and to demonstrate the impact of Furadan use on the local environment. Soil, water and plant samples obtained from agricultural farmlands where the technical formulation Furadan has been used extensively showed high environmental contamination with concentrations of carbofuran and its two toxic metabolites 3-hydroxycarbofuran and 3-ketocarbofuran, separately, ranging from 0.010-1.009 mg/kg of dry surface soil, 0.005-0.495 mg/L in water samples from two rivers flowing through the farms and bdl-2.301 mg/L in water samples from ponds and dams located close to the farms. Maize plant samples contained these residues in concentrations ranging from 0.04-1.328 mg/kg of dry plant tissue. The significantly high concentration levels of carbofuran and its metabolites, 3-ketocarbofuran and 3-hydroxycarbofuran, found in various matrices demonstrate that Furadan was used extensively in the two areas and that there was environmental distribution and exposure of residues in water which posed risks when used for domestic purposes or as drinking water for animals in two wildlife conservancies where the dams and ponds are located. Surface soil contamination was also high and posed risks through run-off into the dams and rivers as well as through secondary exposure to small birds and mammals.

Populations of oriental white-backed vultures (Gyps bengalensis) in south Asia have declined over 95% since the mid-1990s due to feeding on livestock carcasses that had been treated with diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical that is fatal to Gyps vultures. To prevent extinction, captive breeding efforts have been initiated; however, given the overall decline, it is not known to what extent levels of genetic diversity currently exist in the remaining populations. Here we document temporal genetic diversity levels during the 2000‐2006 interval for the last remaining breeding colony of oriental white-backed vultures in Pakistan, and show with simulations that a much larger captive population size is required than currently maintained to prevent further loss of genetic diversity. Before this species is extinct in the wild, it is crucial that additional individuals are included in the captive population.

Populations of three species of lowland Gyps vultures (G. bengalensis, G. tenuirostris and G. indicus) in South Asia have declined precipitously over the last decade as a result of their feeding on diclofenac-contaminated livestock carcasses. Despite extensive studies on these three species, little is known about population trends in the highland species, Himalayan Vulture (G. himalayensis). We surveyed Himalayan Vultures in Nepal between 2001 and 2006. We found no evidence that their populations are facing the same magnitude of decline or threat as those of the three species of lowland Gyps vultures. We suggest that Himalayan Vultures may not be experiencing the same degree of diclofenac poisoning for a number of reasons, including possibly different foraging behaviors by Himalayan Vultures compared to the other Gyps vultures, and/or relatively lower use of diclofenac in the highland regions.

Gyps vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent collapsed in the 1990s and continue to decline. Repeated population surveys showed that the rate of decline was so rapid that elevated mortality of adult birds must be a key demographic mechanism. Post mortem examination showed that the majority of dead vultures had visceral gout, due to kidney damage. The realisation that diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug potentially nephrotoxic to birds, had become a widely used veterinary medicine led to the identification of diclofenac poisoning as the cause of the decline. Surveys of diclofenac contamination of domestic ungulate carcasses, combined with vulture population modelling, show that the level of contamination is sufficient for it to be the sole cause of the decline. Testing on vultures of meloxicam, an alternative NSAID for livestock treatment, showed that it did not harm them at concentrations likely to be encountered by wild birds and would be a safe replacement for diclofenac. The manufacture of diclofenac for veterinary use has been banned, but its sale has not. Consequently, it may be some years before diclofenac is removed from the vultures' food supply. In the meantime, captive populations of three vulture species have been established to provide sources of birds for future reintroduction programmes.

Populations of three Gyps vulture species in the Indian subcontinent have undergone recent rapid declines due to elevated mortality rates caused by diclofenac poisoning. Researchers have proposed that vultures adopt a previously-undescribed neck-drooping posture prior to death. Our study investigated two hypotheses: (1) neck drooping is temperature-dependent, (2) neck-drooping is indicative of poor health in Oriental White-backed Vultures (Gyps bengalensis) and is a prelude to death. Observations of neck-drooping were highly seasonal, with the majority of vultures observed neck-drooping in the hot season from April to October and no vultures observed neck-drooping during the cold months of December and January. Above a calculated threshold ambient temperature of 15.4°C (95% CI 9.9–22.5°C), there was a significant positive correlation between temperature and the proportion (expressed as an angular transformation) of vultures observed neck-drooping. Neck-drooping vultures were observed significantl...

The White‐headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis (WhV) is uncommon and largely restricted to protected areas across its range in sub‐Saharan Africa. We used the World Database on Protected Areas to identify protected areas (PAs) likely to contain White‐headed Vultures. Vulture occurrence on road transects in Southern, East, and West Africa was adjusted to nests per km2 using data from areas with known numbers of nests and corresponding road transect data. Nest density was used to calculate the number of WhV nests within identified PAs and from there extrapolated to estimate the global population. Across a fragmented range, 400 PAs are estimated to contain 1893 WhV nests. Eastern Africa is estimated to contain 721 nests, Central Africa 548 nests, Southern Africa 468 nests, and West Africa 156 nests. Including immature and nonbreeding birds, and accounting for data deficient PAs, the estimated global population is 5475 ‐ 5493 birds. The identified distribution highlights are alarming: over 78% (n = 313) of identified PAs contain fewer than five nests. A further 17% (n = 68) of PAs contain 5 ‐ 20 nests and 4% (n = 14) of identified PAs are estimated to contain >20 nests. Just 1% (n = 5) of PAs are estimated to contain >40 nests; none is located in West Africa. Whilst ranging behavior of WhVs is currently unknown, 35% of PAs large enough to hold >20 nests are isolated by more than 100 km from other PAs. Spatially discrete and unpredictable mortality events such as poisoning pose major threats to small localized vulture populations and will accelerate ongoing local extinctions. Apart from reducing the threat of poisoning events, conservation actions promoting linkages between protected areas should be pursued. Identifying potential areas for assisted re‐establishment via translocation offers the potential to expand the range of this species and alleviate risk.

The cost of field work was generously covered by The Peregrine Fund (USA) and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (UK). Six out of seven vulture species whose global ranges lie largely or wholly within Africa are listed as globally threatened. Since their current distributions individually span up to 39 range states there is a pressing need to develop robust, standardised methods that provide a clear measure of range-wide changes in abundance. Yet, survey methods currently used tend to yield either of two measures: estimates of breeding density, derived mainly from nest counts; or linear encounter rates, derived from road surveys. Here, we present the results of a six-year survey of six vulture species in Uganda, in which we used road counts, in combination with Distance sampling, to determine both encounter rates and densities within protected areas (PAs), and in predominantly pastoral and agricultural areas. In combination, five scavenging species were detected 4–6 times more frequently in PAs than elsewhere, and two species, White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus and Lappet-faced Vulture Torgus tracheliotus, were recorded only within PAs. We estimate that PAs held c.1,300–3,900 individuals of the five scavenging species combined, including c.1,250–2,900 individuals of two Gyps species. We also present national population estimates for two species: White-backed Vulture (c.1,000–2,600 birds) and Lappet-faced Vulture (c.160–500 birds). Although sightings were assigned to only three broad distance bands, Distance sampling provided estimates with a level of precision similar to that achieved for linear encounter rates, but as density estimates; a form more readily comparable with results obtained from other survey types. Postprint

The population declines affecting Asian Gyps vultures are among the most rapid and geographically widespread recorded for any species. This paper describes the rates and patterns of mortality and population change over 4 years at three Oriental white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis colonies in Pakistan: Dholewala (initially 421 pairs), Toawala (initially 445 pairs) and Changa Manga (initially 758 pairs). Vulture mortality led to the extirpation of two of these colonies (Changa Manga and Dholewala) in 3 years, and a decline of 54.3% in the third. Visceral gout, indicative of diclofenac poisoning, was the largest single cause of death in vultures examined. Annual adult mortality from diclofenac poisoning was significantly positively correlated with annual population declines at each colony indicating a direct causal relationship. Visceral gout occurred in temporal and spatial clusters suggesting multiple point sources of diclofenac exposure. The spatial and temporal distribution of dead vultures and approximate time since death were used to estimate minimum rates at which colonies encountered carcasses with sufficient diclofenac to cause mortality of 1.26–1.88 carcasses per colony per month. By estimating total carcass consumption at each colony, the percentage of carcasses contaminated with diclofenac was calculated as 1.41–3.02%, exceeding the minimum required to have caused the observed population decline. With populations declining by approximately 50% annually, the long term survival of Gyps vultures in South Asia will require the removal of diclofenac from vulture food and establishment of captive populations for future restoration once the environment is free from contamination.