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This design case describes how the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) informed the development of SpectrumPlay, a digital tool created to support learning and instruction of elementary music literacy and composition in inclusive music classrooms. The learning supports embedded in the tool enable students with visual processing difficulties learn to read music notation and play independently. Informed by Universal Design for Learning and Cognitive Load Theory, SpectrumPlay emerged as a direct response to the needs of diverse students. The tool evolved from a paper prototype that supported independent learning to a digital software that accounts for individual learner needs. In this design case, design judgments and prototype iterations provide precedent to the learning technologies design community for transforming an inclusive instructional design strategy into a digital tool with broad transformational reach.

Sight-singing and musical dictation are considered as complementary activities by different Ear Training pedagogues but, surprisingly, studies conducted with participants working individually were not able to find benefits of singing associated with dictation taking. This pilot study aims at observing the effect of a sight-singing, performed collectively before melodic dictation, on dictation results. We carried out an experimental study involving 54 students from three universities, who were tested in situations emulating Ear Training classes. The experimental group performed a collective sight-singing before the dictation, and the control group remained silent during the activity. Statistical analyses demonstrated that the experimental group had a significantly better performance on dictation than the control group, showing new data in relation to previous researches, that did not observe contributions of sight-singing related to dictation taking. We believe that collective sight-singing promotes cooperation between students, leading to better performance on reading than individual activities, thus improving dictation results. Although our pilot study counted on a small number of participants, remaining the necessity of future research expanding this one, it points to the potential benefits that collective activities could bring to the often-individualized instruction in Ear Training classes.

Music students often encouter problems in reading sheet music, because of the complexity of Traditional Music Notation (TMN). Klavar is an alternative music notation system that is simple, intuitive, and easy to learn. Thousands of compositions from many composers are available in Klavar. In its original form, Klavar can be considered as tablature for keyboard instruments. The present paper compares advantages and disadvantages of Klavar and TMN. Subsequently, the author proposes an innovative extention of the Klavar music notation, such that enharmonic notes can be discriminated, and harmonic and melodic lines can be identified. The resulting Klavar20 notation is complete, since it contains all the composer's information and is therefore useful for all instruments. Further, it is comprehensible--since the score is easy to read--and compatible with all music already published in Klavar. Music educators should familiarize themselves with Klavar20 and stimulate teaching of this notation to students who might otherwise stop taking music lessons.

This research aims to reveal secondary school students' cognitive and conceptual learning levels in music lessons. In the research, cognitive and conceptual learning competencies in music lessons were discussed in line with students' musical literacy and other musical learning contexts. In this direction, the musical symbol, term, and concept achievement test (MSTCA) were applied to 206 students in a sample group of 12-year-old students from three different schools. The data obtained in the test were categorized and tabulated according to subheadings "duration of the note values, musical expressions, measure indicator." As a result of the research, it was revealed that most students could not conceptualize symbols, terms and concepts especially those related to note duration values. According to the results of the research, it is seen that secondary school students do not understand the musical symbols, terms, and concepts they encounter in the music lesson to a large extent, they have misconceptions, and their learning levels in this field are not at the desired level. Similarly, it is observed that the students need help to fully embody the terms and concepts such as unit beat, tempo, staff, and measure indicator in music. It has been determined that the 6th grade students are not at the level of essential preparedness required for music literacy.

This correlational study consisted of 396 undergraduate violin students studying at three different types of faculties in 18 universities in the 2016-2017 academic year in Turkiye. Data collection was made by using the Effective Musical Notation Reading Strategies Scale (EMNRSS) developed by the researcher and a personal information form. The data were subjected to exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis for construct validity, and in order to determine the internal consistency of the scale within the framework of the reliability tests, the Cronbach's Alpha coefficients were calculated. The three-factor structure that emerged in the exploratory factor analysis was confirmed according to the fit index values obtained as a result of the confirmatory factor analysis (X[superscript 2]/SD = 2.38; NFI = 0.93; CFI = 0.96; GFI = 0.84; RMSEA = 0.059). The alpha value for the first factor of the scale (post-play) was calculated as 0.89 whereas such value was 0.87 for the second factor (during-play) and 0.83 for the third factor (pre-play). The alpha value calculated for the total scale score was 0.92. As a result of the analyses, a 34-item five-point Likert-type scale with three factors was developed. The EMNRSS may be utilized in future research to explore the factors that affect students' level of using such strategies. The applicability of the EMNRSS to levels other than undergraduate level may also be explored.

This study aims to reveal the factors associated with sight-singing skills. A correlational research model was used in this research. The sample of the research consists of 41 music teacher candidates. The second- and third-grade students were given 30 seconds before tonal and rhythm sight-singing tests and then asked to do the first performances. Immediately after the first attempt, students were given another 10 seconds and then asked to do their second trial. The behaviors and performances of the students before and during singing were evaluated with the obtained video recordings by experts. As a result of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test performed on performance scores, it was seen that group distribution was not normal. Since the distribution was not normal, the nonparametric tests--Spearman's rank correlation and Wilcoxon signed-rank test--were preferred in this study. The results from the study show that the greatest predictor of pitch and rhythm sight-singing skill was the piano education experience. In addition, it was discovered that there is a moderate relationship between pitch sight-singing skill and rhythm sight-singing. Academic success, piano education, instrument education, music education, choir, orchestra, and voice education experience are also associated with pitch-rhythm sight-singing. In addition, the variable of age is not related to sight-singing skills. While there was no significant difference in the second trial performance scores compared to the first one in the study, the students with high scores were able to evaluate the 10-second period given more effectively than others when the students were divided into low, medium, and high scores. In the preparation section, the students who could examine the full melody were successful in pitch sight-singing, and there was a significant relationship between the ability to hit the beat and the success of rhythm sight-singing.

Skilled adult readers are those who read fluently, but multilingual learners do not always exhibit the same reading proficiency in the different languages they know. Among the variables that influence learners' silent reading fluency, a research trend points to musical aptitude as an individual ability that affects language learners' reading competency. Common auditory features of reading and musical skills have been observed in studies with children and adolescents, but studies involving multilingual adults learning an additional language are scarce. This study aims to observe the potential relationship of multilingual learners' musical aptitude and their silent reading fluency in all the languages the learners know and in Spanish, an additional language they are learning as adults. 157 Flemish university students were tested in Dutch, French, English, and Spanish. Learners' sociocultural data , their musical aptitude and their silent contextual word reading fluency in all languages were tested. In addition, a reading comprehension test in L4 (Spanish) was administered. The statistical results indicate a significant correlation between their musical aptitude and their L1, L2, L3 silent reading fluency, but not with L4 (Spanish).

This historical study chronicles the creation, development, and termination of the Midwestern Conference on School Vocal and Instrumental Music, hosted by the University of Michigan between 1946 and 2005. Beginning as a band music reading session led by William Revelli in 1936, the conference developed into a premier professional workshop by the early 1960s. The event continually grew over its first three decades, and nationally prominent musicians and educators headlined the event each year. By the 1990s, the Midwestern Conference remained the primary professional development opportunity for music educators in Michigan, but it drew far fewer clinicians of national import. Fractures and disagreements between the university and the co-sponsoring state music education associations eventually led to the event's termination in 2006. Implications for future research are discussed.

While previous research has demonstrated the beneficial role of pop music in foreign language learning, there is a lack of studies exploring the potential impact of Chinese folk songs on Mandarin language acquisition. This study aimed to investigate whether a curriculum based on Chinese folk songs enhances the outcomes of Mandarin Chinese learning in foreign speakers. International students in a university in Beijing who were attending regular Mandarin courses were allocated into two groups: the group receiving an additional Chinese folk song-based curriculum (intervention) and the group not (control). Mandarin proficiency after one and two semesters between the two groups was assessed using the Chinese Proficiency Test (i.e., Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi, HSK) by the Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) analyses. 16 international students were analysed (intervention: 8; control: 8). After adjusting for time, the intervention group showed a significantly higher HSK score in listening section (adjusted [beta] = 7.86, p = 0.015) than that of the control group. In conclusions, Chinese folk song-based curriculum has the potential to enhance Mandarin listening among foreign speakers.

Innovations in higher music education are a way of reasonable use of information and communication technologies that increase interactivity and facilitate classroom learning. The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of introducing the application aimed at improving the skill of sheet music reading. Using a mobile app to enhance the perception of music education is a relevant innovation in a large number of educational institutions. The hypothesis was that a three-month premium subscription to Complete Music Reading Trainer would improve student performance in the Multiple-Choice Questions test from AP Music Theory Practice Exam. The control and experimental groups consisted of 50 first-year pianists each from the College of Music of Xinjiang Normal University, China, whose average age was 18.7 years. The experimental group used the application not only in the classroom but also outside the educational institution while following the application program. The test results were compared with the help of the Student's t test. The average value in the experimental group was 60.88 points out of 75, which exceeds the control group indicator by 14.55 points (on average, a pianist scored 46.34 points there). The difference in the mean values across the groups turned out to be statistically significant (p = 0.000), and the t-criterion value was negative (t = -7.858). This demonstrates the effectiveness of a three-month use of a mobile application for reading sheet music. Thus, the research hypothesis was confirmed. The research results partially coincide with the findings of similar scientific studies. However, there is a small number of such publications that can promote further discussion. The study will be useful to anyone who is interested in an interactive learning environment in the field of higher music education or just wants to use a mobile phone for professional self-improvement while studying.

This research was carried out to reveal the reflections of the ear training performed with viola on instrument deciphering in terms of intonation. The research was conducted with viola students at Afyon Kocatepe University State Conservatory. The research was planned as a semi-trial model and a single group pattern. The data were collected through the pre-test and post-test developed by the researcher. A training plan was developed and applied to the study group for a period of eight weeks, one hour per week. Quantitative data obtained from the pre-test and post-test were tabulated and interpreted descriptively. In addition to the experimental process in the research, the participating students' views on their intonation status were taken with an open-ended question form and analyzed descriptively. As a result of the research, it was determined that the students successfully identified the sounds they heard from the viola and played sight-reading with the viola. In addition, it was determined that the training contributed to the students' motivation to study, development of their intonation awareness, their listening and auditory skills.

The purpose of this study was to investigate second-grade students' ("N" = 128) rhythm-reading achievement and retention after 5 or 10 min of weekly instruction for 3 weeks. Eight intact classes were placed into two groups. Group 1 received 5 min of rhythm-reading instruction during weekly music class, whereas Group 2 received 10 min of rhythm-reading instruction during weekly music class. Treatment lasted 3 weeks, after which students individually completed posttest I. After 2 weeks of no rhythm-reading instruction or practice, students were individually administered posttest II to measure retention. Results indicated that both groups successfully read rhythms after instruction and retained rhythm-reading skills after two additional weeks of no instruction. Between-group analysis suggested that 5 min of instructional time is equally as effective as 10 min on student achievement and retention. Implications include increased efficiency in planning and teaching, increased student engagement, and effective instructional practices in the elementary music classroom.

The aim of the study is to analyse the teaching methods and materials that are currently used in the basic piano education of children at the age of 4-6 years, using the existing literature, and to develop suggestions and recommendations regarding the process. The study covered various teaching methods and techniques that are used in introduction of the piano keyboard to children as well as teaching the titles of notes and their places on the staff throughout the process of habituation of note reading in children at age of 4 to 6 years. Considering the basic principle that note-teaching for children is a visual, auditory and psychomotor process respectively, it has been suggested that the musical notes should be perceived as a graphical structure. The study has sought an answer to the question how to perform the note-teaching for piano education of children in the most productive way possible. This process, which requires due diligence, has been developed in stages and each stage has been elaborated in detail. As a result of the literature review, considering that there are very limited number of studies in the literature on various note-learning methods and materials applied in early age piano education, it is suggested that this study will contribute to pedagogues giving early age piano education and can also shed light on further studies.

The paper's primary goal was to analyze and find interactive piano learning systems using the Suzuki method. The sample of respondents engaged in the investigation was made up of 200 students from the [Zhejiang Conservatory of Music]. The estimated Cohen's kappa coefficient determined the level playing field of control and experimental groups at the start of training, as the coefficient was equal to 0.08. The survey measured the control and experimental group members' awareness of the Suzuki method. 29% of students in the control group and 18% of students in the experimental group were somewhat aware of the Suzuki method and relevant theoretical background. The training program was based on: learning sheet music by listening with Modartt Pianote app; developing fine motor skills using Garritan; teamwork based on YOUSICIAN (for the experimental group) and Ding Talk (for the group of children); regular homework using Native Instruments GarageBand (for the experimental group) and WeChat (for children) mobile apps. After a year of study, 54% of students learned to comprehend melodies of varying complexity by ear with further playing on the piano. 58% of control group members learned to play sophisticated tunes using musical notation. During the second phase, which involved 5-7-year-old children, most of group 3 members acquired strong knowledge. Involvement of 5-7-year-olds was done to compare the effectiveness of the developed program for different age categories.

We report on mixed methods research that explored pre-service teachers' pedagogical content knowledge in basic musical methods for teaching and learning of basic fractions within the framework of Vygotsky's Theory of Scaffolding. Vygotsky's use of scaffolding opines that knowledge, skills and prior experiences, create the foundation for potential development. This allows students to interact with adults (teachers) and/or peers in STEM domains to accomplish tasks, which could possibly not be completed independently. In accomplishing these tasks, the quasi-experimental pre-post test design was used to explore the preservice teachers' pedagogical content knowledge in music notations and fractions in nonequivalent control group design. The findings showed evidence of preservice teachers successfully transitioning from basic musical methods to introductory fractions in providing realistic mathematics discourse in the classroom. As a result, we recommend approaches that build these synergies for efficient and effective classroom mathematics discourse.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of score study and conducting gesture on collegiate musicians' ability to detect errors in a choral score. Is there a combined effect of gesture and score study that impacts undergraduate conductors' identification of errors in a score? Participants (N = 53) viewed a sequence of four choral score excerpts presented via Zoom video conferencing. We asked participants to identify errors under one of four conditions: score study with a correct model recording, conducting with a simple timekeeping pattern while listening, both score study and conducting, or neither. After listening to each excerpt, participants notified the researcher about the exact location, voice part, and error type of any error that they heard. There were significant differences among conditions, with post hoc tests indicating superior error detection scores for the score study conditions. Conducting during the error detection task resulted in lower error detection scores, especially when not preceded by score study with a correct aural model.

The purpose of this instrumental case study was to investigate band teacher agency in a high-stakes performance environment. Research questions were: (1) What experiences and professional relationships were most salient in the past (iterative), present (practical-evaluative), and future (projective) dimensions of band teacher agency in a high-stakes performance environment? and (2) How did high-stakes performance practices, mediated by teacher agency, shape music teaching and learning in school bands? I used Emirbayer and Mische's chordal triad of agency and Priestley et al.'s ecological framework of teacher agency as theoretical frameworks, and I collected data in the forms of interviews, observations, and document review in 2019. Participants' agency emerged from their interactions with music education organizations that perpetuated a high-stakes performance environment. Powerful structures (state associations) and individual agents (band teachers) sustained each other through norms and values derived from their contextual discourse. Findings indicated that visions for holistic music-making and greater diversity and inclusion in school music must include structural changes in professional organizations. For example, state associations could enact policies that incentivize teachers to exert agency to engage students in other forms of music learning in addition to performance preparation.

Racial disparities in band ratings have existed since schools were integrated, but recent studies have suggested such disparities may be more closely associated with poverty than race. Previous research on school segregation focused on differences between Black and White schools, but the United States has become more diverse since the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act. The literature describes numerous inequalities based on race, as well as socioeconomic inequalities in band ratings. This study examined band ratings and frequency of participation at music performance assessments (MPAs) in relation to schools' racial demographics after a half century of school integration, and in relation to the schools' socioeconomic status (SES). Regression models that combined race with SES revealed that race did not contribute a statistically significant amount to the variance in ratings or participation, but SES did contribute a statistically significant amount to the variance in ratings and participation. A marching band rating could be expected to be a full division lower for every 24.4% increase of low SES students in a school, one division lower in concert performance for every 25.0% increase, and one division lower in sightreading for every 20.4% increase. Students, and the profession as a whole, may be better served by focusing more on verbal feedback from adjudicators and perhaps eliminating ratings entirely.

Much like an effective speaker, a flexible musician is competent across multiple settings. The sociolinguistic theory of code-switching can be a useful tool to better understand how musicians acquire a set of skills and knowledge to support music-making in a range of activities in and outside of school and throughout society. In this article, readers learn about the specific skills and knowledge musical code-switchers rely on the most when moving among a diverse range of musical events. This article includes examples of how code-switching experiences can improve music classes, lessons, and rehearsals and support meaningful independent music-making.

This paper explores how Chilean teachers approach fundamental aspects of rhythm, verifying their consistency with cognitive processing theory and findings. 203 music teachers completed a validated questionnaire with closed and open items regarding how they approach pulse, tempo, meter and rhythmic patterns during rhythm production and perception activities. The results show that, in general, teaching practices are congruent with the scientific evidence related to the processing of these musical aspects. Finally, the use of elements that facilitate synchronization or constant pulse is suggested: optimal tempi ranges for adults, use of binary meters, and the use of rhythmic patterns that prioritise the double-half relationship.

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential and limitations of peer tutoring in the development of the intonation of violin and viola students in elementary music education. Researchers have found that peer tutoring is a highly beneficial learning strategy. Peer tutoring is defined as the pairing of learners in an asymmetric relationship, who learn by teaching and start with a common, known, shared goal and an interaction framework previously structured by the teacher. After presenting a didactic proposal based on peer tutoring for the development of intonation, this research adopted a mixed-method approach to present quantitative improvements in intonation. The analysis of the pairs' interaction explains these improvements as coming from the framework fostered by the pairs and the opportunities to learn through teaching. It is concluded that peer tutoring is a very effective tool for improving the intonation of string students.

The purpose of this study was to determine the male-female ratio of band directors serving on adjudication panels for Texas University Interscholastic League (UIL) concert and sight reading evaluations from 2010-2019. The Texas Music Forms database was used to access a list of UIL band concert and sight reading adjudicators from across the state from 2010-2019. Adjudicator panels were analyzed by gender, region, grade level (middle school and high school), and type of evaluation. Results indicate that the average percentage of female UIL band adjudicators hired between 2010 and 2019 was 16.6%, and there were 5.5% more female judges in 2019 than in 2010. When the number of women who served on multiple panels during a given year is considered, the actual number of females who were hired between 2010 and 2019 decreases anywhere from 43.7% to 58.16% annually. Of the 1,482 combined concert and sight reading evaluation panels from 2010-2019, only 3 (0.2%) were all-female, while 639 (43.1%) of the combined panels were all-male, and 840 (56.7%) of the combined panels were mixed gender. The data show that the largest concentration of female adjudicators (27.24%)served on middle school panels, whereas only 8.4% of high school panels were female, and 9.8% of combined middle and high school panels were female. While the percentage of females serving on UIL band adjudication panels has slowly risen over the past decade, they continue to be noticeably underrepresented. Further research on the gender of band adjudicators in other states with a similar evaluation process could be conducted to determine if this issue is national in scope.

Sight-singing is prevalent in aural skill classes, where learners differ in experience and cognitive abilities. In this research, we investigated whether musical experience, level of study, and working memory capacity (WMC) can predict sight-singing performance and if there is a correlation between WMC and performance among some subgroups of participants. We hypothesized that more experienced students and those with a higher WMC might sight-sing better than those with less experience and lesser WMC. We also hypothesized that the relationship between WMC and sight-singing performance would be more salient for less experienced and less proficient sight-singers. We surveyed 56 subjects about their experience with music, assessed their WMC, and evaluated their performance on a short sight-singing task. The results showed that the age when students began learning music could predict sight-singing performance independently from the number of years of experience and the educational level, suggesting a possible developmental component to sight-singing skill. We also found a negative relationship between WMC and pitch score in the low-performing group and between rhythm and pitch score, suggesting that pitch and rhythm are processed differently. Teachers should be aware of how students' backgrounds might be related to performance and encourage them to develop strong automated skills, such as reading music or singing basic tonal patterns.

Music reading is a central part of most band programs, yet research about music reading has rarely included articulation markings. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of four experimental practice conditions to a control condition on woodwind players' performance of slur, accent, and staccato markings. A secondary purpose was to examine the role of working memory in performing articulation. The practice conditions used visual and kinesthetic approaches: colored notation, tracing over articulation marks, and speaking syllables. University woodwind players (N = 26) practiced short etudes on 1 day, and they returned approximately 24 hours later for retention testing. Participants' working memory was strongly related to playing articulation on the first day of practice. Woodwind players prioritized playing slurs over accents and staccatos, and there was some support for tracing with color to support accurate performance of articulation.

This study was conducted to analyze the effects of regular sight reading studies of classical guitar students on their sight reading and their performance of classical guitar. In the research, experimental method was used with a pretest-posttest control and experimental group. The application process was carried out with 14 undergraduate students studying Music and Fine Arts Education Department from Marmara University. In the study groups, 7 students from the individual instrument training course made up the experimental group (n=7) and another 7 students from the individual instrument training made up the control group (n=7). Data were collected using "The Guitar Performance Grading Scale" and "The Sight Reading Performance Evaluation Scale". The study included a 10-week experimental process. The process was carried out within 1 week of pretest evaluations by a jury of experts, 8 weeks of individual guitar instrument training performed by the researcher and 1 week of posttest evaluations by the jury. The data obtained was analyzed after the application and interpreted by statistical techniques. In the application that was done with the groups to analyze the influence of a regular sight reading practice upon sight reading skills, a significant difference was found between the experimental and control group posttest "Sight Reading Performance Evaluation Scale" scores in favor of the experimental group. In the other application done to analyze the influence of a regular sight reading practice upon classical guitar performance, a significant difference was found between experimental and control group in favor of experimental group "Guitar Performance Grading Scale" posttest scores. According to the findings, it has been concluded that the education given to the experimental group in the research positively influenced and improved the sight reading skills and classical guitar performances of the students; thus, various suggestions were given on the subject.

Achieving fluency in sightreading--particularly rhythm reading--is cited by researchers as a universally problematic component of formal music education. This study employed an experimental design to examine the efficacy of focused practice on rhythm reading with targeted feedback. College music majors (n = 28) were sent a novel, challenging piece of sheet music every day for five days, and were required to return a recording of themselves clapping or tapping the rhythm. Half of the students received only a polite acknowledgement each day. The others received personalised feedback on their errors by the end of the same day, and were required to repeat the incorrect passages in the following day's recording, along with the new material. Sightreading tests were administered pre and post. On average, students in the feedback group improved significantly more than their peers in the practice-only group. Implications for postsecondary music instruction are discussed.

The aim of this study was to explore the impact of a new solfege course design, where movable numbers integrated into the fixed-do system, on students' sight-singing skills. The procedure of this action research, carried out in two cycles, consists of three steps: 'planning', 'acting and observing' and 'reflecting'. The course, which was designed in the planning step, was implemented by the researcher for 28 weeks in the acting and observing step. Data were collected through research diary, student interviews, midterm and final exams, and student self-evaluations. In the reflecting step, evaluation regarding the entire process was made and an improved version of the course design was formed at the end of each cycle. According to the results of Cycle 1, the necessity of rearranging the tonal patterns, and progressing more slowly in rhythm teaching has emerged. The results of Cycle 2 revealed the need to update the 'rhythmic melody sight-singing' materials in the last unit and to incorporate video assignments into the course design. The overall results showed that integrating movable numbers into the fixed-do system is an effective way to teach music reading skills in solfege class.

The aim of this study is to analyse activities on sound qualities raised in Early Childhood Education textbooks from an educational-musical point of view. The sample consisted of 1391 activities in textbooks from the leading publishing houses in Spain. For data collection an "ad hoc" instrument called the "Protocol for the Systematic Analysis of Musical Activities" was developed. It has been used both exploratory statistics for descriptive analysis and confirmatory statistics for a univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis of different variables. Results showed that the qualities which were most worked on were timbre and duration with intensity and pitch being least. Activities that worked on parameters most were those related to playing instruments, with the exception of duration, which was more present in movement/dance activities. Finally, two thirds of musical activities in textbooks were related to qualities of sound, reflecting the importance publishers place on these in the teaching-learning proposals of music in Early Childhood Education textbooks.

There is a substantial body of evidence that demonstrates links between language and music and between music and improved cognitive ability, particularly with regard to verbal and working memory, in both adults and children. However, there is often a mix of type of musical training and instrument used and use of musical notation. The research reported here uses a randomised controlled trial with 32 novice children, aged seven, learning to play the piano with both hands whilst reading music notation. The intervention was conducted in a school setting, each child receiving in total four hours of instruction. Results confirm previous findings that short-term music instruction improves working memory. Results also demonstrated that children with this musical training outperformed controls on a word identification measure. Overall, the results show evidence for a causal relationship between music learning and improvements in verbal skills. The significant differences occurred after only one term of instruction and were stable 3 months post-intervention.

The application of new methods and measures in domains with few methodological traditions of that kind often presents researchers with a challenge; they may have to take up the task of developing their understanding of the phenomenon while, at the same time, creating the practices for its study. For us, the method was eye tracking, and the topic, music reading. One key characteristic of music reading is that the music reader's gaze moves slightly ahead of the current point of performance. This gap allows the performer to prepare for the upcoming motoric responses. In this paper, we present our 10-year-long path, describing the steps we have taken while studying this "looking ahead" in music reading. We will point out how we have, after both advances as well as setbacks, come to change our views on how best to explain the various components affecting this specific act and how it is best measured. Finally, we discuss some of the lessons we have learned, hoping in this way to provide practical suggestions for others who plan to take up methods from other domains and use them in novel ones.

Ralph L. Baldwin (1872-1943) was a prominent music educator who, in addition to his role as a teacher, was an author, composer, and leader of various professional music organizations. Baldwin later became known through his many publications and as the administrator of the Sterrie Weaver Summer School after Weaver's untimely death. This narrative study was intended to describe the teaching philosophy developed by Baldwin. In addition, the visibility and recognition brought to Baldwin through his books in the "Music Education Series," published by Ginn and Company, were detailed. Baldwin advocated teaching sight reading or the "language" of music to balance out the rote singing methods being used. He blended the rote and note philosophies much like his predecessor Sterrie Weaver. While Baldwin's methods and publications are not necessarily used in American classrooms today, it is important to recognize the quality ideas and resources that he offered to music educators of that time. Baldwin's publications are a good example of an effective instructional method, including materials, that directly preceded the adoption of current methods and approaches to music education.

The purpose of this study was to trace the development and growth of the University of Illinois Band Clinics during their twenty-five-year history (1930-1954). Founded by A. Austin Harding, Director of Bands at the University of Illinois, the Band Clinics served as an important forum for the reading and performance of contest pieces and new band music during an important period in the development of the school band movement. The clinics also served as the National Band Clinics, sponsored by the National School Band Association, from 1932 until 1937. Throughout its history, the clinics expanded in scope and size to provide directors of all levels and notoriety the opportunity to gather on an annual basis to discuss current trends and teaching techniques that were important to the growth of the school band movement. Due to their success and popularity, the clinics served as an important event for the development of other band-specific conferences throughout the United States.

This study examines how piano-accompanied solfège reading practices of preservice music teachers (N = 28) affect their performance on their musical hearing, reading, and writing (MHRW) classes. A pretest-posttest design with control groups was employed. The data were analyzed by 2 × 2 split-plot analysis of variance (ANOVA) and one-way ANOVA. Consequently, a significant difference was not found between the MHRW performance scores of the experimental and control groups. An analysis of mean performance scores revealed that the scores received by the control group were higher than those of the experimental group after the practice. Follow-up interviews that were held with 14 students after the experimental implementation revealed that students believed piano-accompanied courses were more useful, and they felt more comfortable with piano accompaniment. Although MHRW performance scores indicated that piano-accompanied solfège reading practices did not have a significant effect on preservice music teachers' MHRW performances, it helped them participate in courses more enthusiastically.

Throughout much of the 20th century, the Western classical vocal aesthetic dominated tertiary singing training in the Republic of Ireland. At the turn of the 21st century, and reflecting similar movements internationally, Irish institutions, examining boards and private teaching studios diversified to include musical theatre and popular styles of singing in degree programmes and syllabi. The purpose of this study was to further understand voice teacher perceptions of these shifts in pedagogical culture. This research questioned how classically trained teachers of singing negotiate teaching across styles in popular music genres, and also questioned if implicit, embodied cultural ideas about classical singing defined their educative approaches to popular music vocals. Data were collected through in-depth qualitative interviews with classically trained teachers of singing in the Republic of Ireland. Analysis of interview data revealed a number of themes which are discussed within a theoretical framework drawn from the work of Bourdieu, revealing that the participant teachers are involved in processes of negotiation and re-negotiation of personal and institutional habitus.

This theoretical article focuses on reasonable accommodation in education by offering conceptual tools that could prove beneficial in resolving policy concerns for equity in music education. Providing reasonable accommodation entails making necessary and appropriate modifications that may include depending on the circumstances, physical or interaction-related changes. From the perspective of teacher autonomy, this article focuses on two aspects of reasonable accommodation: (a) its definition and (b) its implications for music education practice. Responsibility for reasonable accommodation is considered in the context of Finnish music education through three illustrations that address matters such as music notation and instrument selection. We conclude that the concept of reasonable accommodation offers students and teachers tools to prevent disadvantageous musical and pedagogical conventions from being enforced at the level of the local curriculum and through teachers' actions, potentially resulting in inequities and discrimination.

When music educators discuss repertoire, they often discuss "what" pieces to perform and "when" in the year to perform them. In this article, I ask, "Who should choose the music for ensemble study, and "how" should it be chosen?" I share a rationale for why music educators might include students in ensemble repertoire selection and several ways they might open the repertoire so their students can contribute to the process. Based on my interest in how teacher-student dialogue can occur in this process, I draw from conversations I had with six orchestra teachers and twenty-seven of their students. The approaches presented here come from my interviews with these six teachers, from others with whom I have since collaborated, and from my own experience as an educator. Music educators may find these approaches useful for discussion, study, and implementation of more inclusive practice.

Purpose: In this research, it is observed that if solfeggio syllables, consonants, and vowels are spoken properly, voice intensity (accent), duration, pitch (high pitch-low pitch) and intonation (the ability to carry a musical voice) related to proper pitch level. In this study, it is observed that rhythmic structures do not form without pronouncing the syllables in solfeggio, and, therefore, a voice training system based on bona exercises has been developed. Research Methods: This research is an action research because it deals with the methods of designing individual lessons. This study examines the vocal exercises that adapted bona (rhythmic articulation exercises) and was performed during the lesson; therefore, it is an action research and is subjective. Findings: Bona exercises have an important place in solfeggio training. Solmization syllables have been used especially in bona and solfeggio exercises since they ease solfeggio. Eventually, all of the participants agreed that bona as an individual voice lesson method is helpful to understanding solfeggio principles. Implications for Research and Practice: The question of how PVT classes can be of use in solfeggio classes has never been answered. It is deduced from this study that the correct intonation or tone can be obtained by pronouncing the solmization syllables with the principle of correct voice production, using the intensity of the consonants, which affects the intensity, duration, and pitch of the voice. Within this scope, PVT exercises can play a huge role in musical training programs. Otherwise, it will not be of benefit other than drawing attention to the beauty of one's voice. The usage of breathing and bona exercises with solmization syllables during the Personal Voice Training course was useful. Students have found that reading the notes according to their intensities and doing breathing exercises contributes considerably to pronouncing the consonants and finding the tone.

This study seeks to analyze pre-service music teachers' attitudes towards the piano lesson and their piano sight-reading skills in terms of academic achievement in the piano lesson, year of study, and gender and reveal the relationship between their attitudes towards the piano lesson and piano sight-reading skills. Descriptive model and correlational research model are employed. The study group consists of 50 randomly-selected students from the 2nd and 3rd years taking the piano lesson during the 2016-2017 academic year in Uludag University Faculty of Education Department of Fine Arts Music Education Program in Turkey. "Piano Lesson Attitude Scale" was used to collect data regarding the piano students' attitudes towards piano lesson. In addition, the piano students were asked to play two sight-reading pieces selected by experts before and internationally accepted for sight-reading, to detect their sight-reading skills. The students were video-recorded, and their sight-reading levels were measured via an observation form prepared by the teaching staff specialized in their field. The collected attitude and sight-reading scores were analyzed via t-test based on the variables of gender and year of study. The correlations between the attitude, piano score, and sight-reading score variables were calculated by Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients. At the end of the study, a significant relationship was detected between the students' attitudes towards the piano lesson and their sight-reading skills. The piano students' attitudes towards the piano lesson have a medium level correlation with their piano lesson academic achievement and sight-reading skills. The female students have better attitudes towards the piano lesson compared to the male students. Also, the 2nd year students have better attitudes towards the piano lesson compared to the 3rd year students. The study results indicate a medium level correlation between the students' sight-reading skills and their piano lesson academic achievement. The female students have better sight-reading skills than the male students. Lastly, the 2nd year students have sight-reading scores close to those of the 3rd year students. This study is significant as it shows the relationship between pre-service music teachers' attitudes towards the piano lesson and their piano sight-reading skills.

The purpose of this article is to articulate clear definitions of music literacy and text, explain what impact they may have on music education generally, and describe their application to day-to-day teaching. The broadened definitions are intended to unite music professionals' understanding of music literacy and help them more clearly approach music literacy instruction while simultaneously fulfilling curricular expectations of administrators and other stakeholders. Specific benefits of the new definitions include (1) aiding conversations between music teachers and literacy administrators, (2) providing clarity in the examination of broad issues and general approaches in music education, and (3) enhancing clarity and effectiveness in day-to-day instructional planning and delivery.

During music reading, performers create expectations of the upcoming music. When these expectations are violated due to changes in the notation, performers have to adjust their reading and adapt their motor responses to match this new information. In this study, we examine how selected background, outcome, and process measures reflect the successful handling of incongruences during music reading. Twenty-four performers were tasked with singing or playing versions of "Mary had a little lamb" in two different tonalities. Some versions contained a surprising element: a bar shifted down a tone. Selected outcome and process measures, such as performance accuracy and eye-movements during music reading (eye-time span, duration of first-pass fixations and pupil dilation), were analyzed. In sum, incongruence in music notation not only increased the number of performance mistakes, but incongruent melodies also led to micro-level changes in the reading processes. We propose that understanding the cognitive strategies for successful music reading requires going beyond the more traditional outcome measures and focus on the detailed analyses of the reading process itself.

Reading music at sight involves the simultaneous execution of numerous skills. While the successful performance of a rhythmic bowing skill may indicate complete mastery of the holistic skill, partial success may still reflect mastery of some sub-tasks (rhythmic pattern or bowing style). Based on the preliminary findings regarding bow direction by Alexander and Henry (2014), and their recommendations for further research (2014, 2015), the current study sought to create a hierarchy of rhythmic bowing skills and study possible effects of those skills on sight-reading accuracy. The results of this study indicated that high school string players, motivated to attend a summer orchestra camp, achieved a high overall success rate (92%) while performing selected basic rhythmic bowing skills. This may indicate that the skills assessed have already been mastered by many string players at the high school level. Future research should utilize less-experienced participants to discover at what age these concepts are learned.

Sight-reading is widely considered one of the most important parts of a choral music education and plays an important role in developing independent music learners (Collins, 1993) and a good indicator of music achievement (Hayward & Gromko, 2009). It has also been said that better sight-readers tend to be better performers (Lehman & McArthur, 2002). Additionally, sight-reading is one of the core skills mentioned in the National Association for Music Education's Core Music Standards (NAFME, 2015). In many states, sight-reading is a required portion of choral contest participation and all-state choir auditions. A variety of opinions exist, however, as to the best method of teaching sight-reading in the choral classroom. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of writing solfège syllables into music. Research questions were as follows: (1) Is the combination of auditory, visual, and kinesthetic skills (writing solfège) improving sight-reading ability or are singers becoming dependent on reading the written syllable? (2) Is audiation, an aural technique, a better choice for high school choir students? (3) Do the number of years in choir or the gender of the participant affect results? Two sight-reading melodies were created based on exercises from "Week 13" in McGill and Stevens' "90 Days to Sight Reading Success" (2003). Each melody was in the key of F-major and was four measures in length. Effort was made to make each melody of similar difficulty by using the same number of rhythmic changes and the same interval leaps (see Figure 1). A pilot study was completed to determine the appropriate difficulty level for the melodies. Students (N = 98) in a choral program from a 4A high school in central Texas participated in the study. Each participant was given a written survey inquiring about instrumental background, gender, participation in private voice lessons, and number of years in choir. They were then randomly assigned to two different study groups. An independent t-test using pre-test results revealed no significant difference between the groups, t(96) = 0.75, p < 0.05. Participants were given a pre-test to determine their sight-reading level before the experiment began. The students were randomly assigned to sight-read Melody A or Melody B. Half of the participants in each group did the pre-test with Melody A and the other half with Melody B. The students were allowed 30 seconds to chant through the melody. At the end of the chant period, the tonic triad was played and the participant was instructed to sing the melody. Each pre-test was recorded and scored from the recording. Participants received a point for every correctly sung pitch with a maximum score of 16. An independent listener analyzed 25% of the recordings randomly selected from each group on pre-test and post-test trials. Reliability, calculated using Pearson's r, was 99%. The results of this study are potentially highly applicable in the choral classroom. If students are writing solfège on the score or just audiating pitches in their head, the use of either of these sight-reading methods could improve sight-reading ability

In 2011, a collaborative effort began between the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired (TSBVI) and Austin Classical Guitar (ACG), a local 501(c) nonprofit music organization. The idea behind this collaboration was to start a small guitar program that would provide TSBVI students with quality classroom guitar instruction. At that time, ACG was providing guitar instruction to over 40 schools in the Central Texas area. These classes met all the state fine arts requirements and were available for credit hours as music classes during the regular school day. In addition to easing the financial burden of paying for guitar instruction, school districts that collaborated with ACG also received access to quality instruction from experts in the field of music as well as access to their guitar curriculum. The curriculum, which is called GuitarCurriculum.com (GCC) and is available at a website of the same name, produced positive results for students all over the United States, Europe, South America, and other parts of the world (Marcum & Hinsley, 2004). TSBVI and ACG agreed that the small ensemble of approximately five students with visual impairments and no additional disabilities would receive music instruction for one hour, four days a week, during the 2011-2012 school year. In addition, the instructor and TSBVI students would have access to the ACG classroom guitar curriculum free of charge.

Success in music theory studies appears to be simply a matter of learning the rules and applying them. This is not the case with aural skills, which include labelling a scale played on piano, or writing a rhythm heard on a drum. Student success in aural tasks is not always consistent, and the student skill seems to fade over time if there is no practice on a regular basis. Final music examinations, such as Victorian Certificate of Education and tertiary entrance exams, don't allow students to reproduce the sound during the examination. The reason for this is obvious--students cannot share results in an exam situation--but this also makes for a much more difficult task. So what is the key to steady and lasting improvement in aural skills? The following literature review explores various approaches which could be of use in the Australian classroom.

The metronome is a frequently used time-keeping tool in music instrument practice. However, if its speed is set beyond a comfortable level for the performer, their eye movement (EM) patterns can betray pressure that might have been placed on the visual processing system. The patterns of the eyes moving forward or back, (saccades); when the eye stops between saccades to take in visual information, (fixations) and/or the time taken to programme a saccade (saccadic latency), are indicative of processing ability and differ with expertise. What is not known is how various levels of speed demand might affect the EM patterns of musicians with differing sight-reading abilities. This study measured the EM patterns of expert and non-expert music sight-readers. Musical excerpts were played on a keyboard--initially at the individual's fastest speed ensuring accuracy and then at a metronome setting of 120MM. The study showed that imposing excessive relative speed demands on less skilled sight-readers resulted in an inability to sustain performance. While this result might be expected, examination of the EM patterns of the experts indicated that smaller speed increments relative to their fastest accurate speed, resulted in less processing stress.