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Treatment of bacterial infections is becoming a serious clinical challenge due to the global dissemination of multidrug antibiotic resistance, necessitating the search for alternative treatments to disarm the virulence mechanisms underlying these infections. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) employs multiple chaperone-usher pathway pili tipped with adhesins with diverse receptor specificities to colonize various host tissues and habitats. For example, UPEC F9 pili specifically bind galactose or N -acetylgalactosamine epitopes on the kidney and inflamed bladder. Using X-ray structure-guided methods, virtual screening, and multiplex ELISA arrays, we rationally designed aryl galactosides and N -acetylgalactosaminosides that inhibit the F9 pilus adhesin FmlH. The lead compound, 29β-NAc, is a biphenyl N -acetyl-β-galactosaminoside with a K i of ∼90 nM, representing a major advancement in potency relative to the characteristically weak nature of most carbohydrate-lectin interactions. 29β-NAc binds tightly to FmlH by engaging the residues Y46 through edge-to-face π-stacking with its A-phenyl ring, R142 in a salt-bridge interaction with its carboxylate group, and K132 through water-mediated hydrogen bonding with its N-acetyl group. Administration of 29β-NAc in a mouse urinary tract infection (UTI) model significantly reduced bladder and kidney bacterial burdens, and coadministration of 29β-NAc and mannoside 4Z269, which targets the type 1 pilus adhesin FimH, resulted in greater elimination of bacteria from the urinary tract than either compound alone. Moreover, FmlH specifically binds healthy human kidney tissue in a 29β-NAc-inhibitable manner, suggesting a key role for F9 pili in human kidney colonization. Thus, these glycoside antagonists of FmlH represent a rational antivirulence strategy for UPEC-mediated UTI treatment., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest statement: J.W.J. and S.J.H. are inventors on US patent US8937167 B2, which covers the use of mannoside-based FimH ligand antagonists for the treatment of disease. J.W.J., M.E.H., and S.J.H. have ownership interests in Fimbrion Therapeutics and may benefit if the company is successful in marketing mannosides., (Copyright © 2018 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.)

Introduction: The bacterial adhesin FimH is a virulence factor and an attractive therapeutic target for urinary tract infection (UTI) and Crohn's Disease (CD). Located on type 1 pili of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), the FimH adhesin plays an integral role in the pathogenesis of UPEC. Recent efforts have culminated in the development of small-molecule mannoside FimH antagonists that target the mannose-binding lectin domain of FimH, inhibiting its function and preventing UPEC from binding mannosylated host cells in the bladder, thereby circumventing infection. Areas covered: The authors describe the structure-guided design of mannoside ligands, and review the structural biology of the FimH lectin domain. Additionally, they discuss the lead optimization of mannosides for therapeutic application in UTI and CD, and describe various assays used to measure mannoside potency in vitro and mouse models used to determine efficacy in vivo. Expert opinion: To date, mannoside optimization has led to a diverse set of small-molecule FimH antagonists with oral bioavailability. With clinical trials already initiated in CD and on the horizon for UTI, it is the authors, opinion that mannosides will be a 'first-in-class' treatment strategy for UTI and CD, and will pave the way for treatment of other Gram-negative bacterial infections.

Introduction: Type 1 pili are utilized by Gram-negative bacteria to adhere to host tissue and thus are a key virulence factor in urinary tract infections (UTIs) and Crohn's disease (CD). This adhesion is mediated through specific binding of the terminal adhesin, FimH, to mannosylated host glycoproteins. FimH is essential for UTI pathogenesis and thus is a promising therapeutic target., Areas Covered: Herein, we review the structural frameworks of FimH antagonists disclosed in the patent literature. X-ray crystallographic binding studies of D-mannose and early FimH antagonists have uncovered key molecular interactions. Exploiting this knowledge, mannosides with extraordinarily high binding affinities have been designed. Structure-activity relationships (SAR) and structure-property relationship (SPR) studies have resulted in the rapid development of orally bioavailable FimH antagonists with promising therapeutic potential for UTI and CD., Expert Opinion: It is our opinion that biaryl or 'two-ring' mannosides, which represent the largest and most thoroughly tested class of FimH antagonists, also hold the most promise as a novel treatment for UTIs. These antagonists have also been shown to have efficacy in treating CD. Judging from the strong preclinical data, we predict that one or more FimH antagonists will be entering the clinic within the next 1-2 years.

Oxysterols, oxidized metabolites of cholesterol, are endogenous small molecules that regulate lipid metabolism, immune function, and developmental signaling. Although the cell biology of cholesterol has been intensively studied, fundamental questions about oxysterols, such as their subcellular distribution and trafficking pathways, remain unanswered. We have therefore developed a useful method to image intracellular 20(S)-hydroxycholesterol with both high sensitivity and spatial resolution using click chemistry and fluorescence microscopy. The metabolic labeling of cells with an alkynyl derivative of 20(S)-hydroxycholesterol has allowed us to directly visualize this oxysterol by attaching an azide fluorophore through cyclo-addition. Unexpectedly, we found that this oxysterol selectively accumulates in the Golgi membrane using a pathway that is sensitive to ATP levels, temperature, and lysosome function. Although previous models have proposed nonvesicular pathways for the rapid equilibration of oxysterols between membranes, direct imaging of oxysterols suggests that a vesicular pathway is responsible for differential accumulation of oxysterols in organelle membranes. More broadly, clickable alkynyl sterols may represent useful tools for sterol cell biology, both to investigate the functions of these important lipids and to decipher the pathways that determine their cellular itineraries.