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One hundred eighty-two Balinese were typed for HLA-A and -B locus antigens. From these, 103 were also typed for HLA -C, 51 for HLA-DR, 172 for Bf and 173 for GLO. These results and the significant phenotypic associations are situated with respect to other South-East Asian populations. In addition to this first study, 175 individuals from an isolated Balinese village typed for HLA-A, -B, -DR, Bf and GLO are presented, The effect of isolation on haplotype (HLA-A/-B/Bf/-DR) variability is discussed.

Red cell samples from persons belonging to four Amerindian linguistic groups in Colombia were investigated for genetic variants in eight blood group systems: for three of the groups investigations were extended to ten red cell enzyme and four serum protein systems. The groups studied are the Noanama (including six Empera) of the Rio Siquirisua and Rio Docampado on the Pacific lowlands and the Cofan, Ingano and Siona Indians of the Upper Rio Putumayo and its tributaries to the east of the Andes. Only blood group O was present among two of the groups and the same groups were 100% Kp(b +), k in the Kell system. Di(a +) frequencies were high in three groups and there was marked variation between groups for the MNS, Rh, P, Lewis and Duffy systems. Polymorphism in all the three linguistic groups studied for serum proteins and red cell enzymes was present only in the red cell acid phosphatase, phosphoglucomutase (locus-1) and haptoglobin systems. 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase was polymorphic in the Noanama, and caeruloplasmin was polymorphic in the Ingano linguistic group. In addition two persons belonging to the Cofan linguistic group revealed the presence of an “atypical” component in the lactate dehydrogenase system. No variation was found in the other six red cell enzyme and two serum protein systems. Comparison with published data on red cell enzyme and serum protein groups for other South American Amerindian populations shows the Colombian populations studied here most closely resemble the Cayapo of Brazil.

Surprisingly little is known about the development of connections within a functional area of the cerebral cortex. We examined the postnatal growth of connections in mouse barrel cortex during the second and third weeks after birth, coinciding with the period of rapid synaptogenesis that occurs just after the barrels first form. A barrel is a group of neurons in layer 4 of somatosensory cortex that is part of a cortical column. Each whisker/barrel column is linked anatomically and functionally to a homotopic whisker on the contralateral face. Radial groups of cortical neurons were labeled with the neuronal tracer biotinylated dextran amine in mice ranging in age from postnatal day 8 (P8; P0 is the date of birth) to adulthood. The spatial distributions of retrogradely labeled neurons in different laminae were analyzed. The barrel map in layer 4 was used as a template to compare quantitative data from different animals and to account for substantial changes in barrel and barrel field size during development. Intrinsic projections 1) innervate increasingly more distant targets within barrel cortex up to 3 weeks of age; 2) continue to form in targets after 3 weeks, effectively strengthening existing connections; 3) follow a timetable for growth that is layer-specific; 4) link more distant barrel columns in layer 4 from neurons that are found preferentially in the barrel side and the septa between barrels; and 5) form over the shortest distances between the barrel columns. These data indicate that intrinsic connections in mouse barrel cortex develop by the progressive addition of neuronal connections rather than by sculpting preliminary connections. We describe statistically significant changes in connectivity during development that may be applied to model and assess the development of connections after a variety of experimental perturbations, such as to the environment and/or the genome.

Historically, the Angan populations of Papua New Guinea have maintained a strong isolation and absorbed limited genes from their neighbours. This lack of intermixing is reflected in their relatively homogeneous cultural, linguistic and genetic profiles. We have determined the electrophoretic variation at 26 red cell enzyme, serum protein and haemoglobin loci in the Watut Anga, a splinter group occupying the Upper Watut Valley of Morobe Province. Their genetic profile reveals the lack of a number-of variants, such as PGM2*10 and MDH*3, known to exhibit high frequencies in other highland populations. The average heterozygosity in the Watut is also much lower when compared with other Papua New Guinean populations. Their present numerical strength notwithstanding, it appears that the Angan populations have experienced population bottlenecks in their evolutionary history which may have accentuated their genetic divergence from other Papua New Guinean populations.

320 adults and children of an isolated community of Bali, Indonesia, have been tested for blood groups ABO, Rh, MNS, P, Lewis, Duffy, Kell, for haptoglobin and transferrin and for hepatitis B surface antigen and antibodies. Phenotype distribution and gene frequencies are given for the total population tested and for two subgroups representative of the inbred population of the isolate and of the non-inbred part of the population. Significant differences between the two subgroups show a clear genetic drift in the inbred population. The study brings biological support to the ethnological hypothesis of population migrations in this area. Tests for hepatitis B surface antigen reveal a lower prevalence of the disease than in most other south-east Asian populations.

Red cell antigen, serum protein and red cell enzyme groups were determined for a series of 1,821 individuals belonging to six language families in Western New Guinea. Three of the language families represent groupings of languages spoken by people in the swampy coastal plain of south central Western New Guinea, two belong to the Central Highlands and one to the Lake Plain area near the confluence of the Idenburg and Rouffaer Rivers. The distribution of genetic markers reveals similarities with other parts of New Guinea. The A2 allele is absent in the ABO system, the frequency of Ns in the MNS system is very high as is the R1 (CDe) allele in the Rh system. Hp1 frequencies are high, and the transferrin allele TfD1 is present as in other parts of New Guinea. In the red cell enzyme systems several alleles were detected which are characteristic of Papuan, and in some cases other Melanesian populations: these include MDH3, PGK4, PGK2, PGM92, PGM102, as well as some very restricted alleles such as Peptidase B6 and Pep B2. Three indices of genetic distance were computed. The most striking results are the genetic closeness of the Dani and Moni populations from the Central Highlands to the Asmat on the southern coastal plain, and the relative remoteness of the Awyu from the other south coastal populations. The results are discussed in terms of recent theories on the origin and dispersal of Papuan languages.

A total of 267 blood samples from persons belonging to the Shrimali Vania Soni caste group in Gujarat State, Western India have been analyzed for 6 blood group, 4 serum protein and 19 red cell enzyme systems, for haemoglobin and beta-thalassaemia and for red-green colour blindness. A number of rare genetic variants were detected, including a unique electrophoretically fast variant of superoxide dismutase. Genetic distance comparisons with other caste groups in Gujarat State show that Vania Soni from Surat are a distinctive group clustering with another subdivision of the Vania. The remaining Vania Soni cluster together and are distinct from the other caste groups examined in Gujarat. However, on the basis of individual genetic markers the Vania Soni appear not to be genetically differentiated in any remarkable way from other Hindu populations in western and northern India.

Blood samples from a series of Dani speaking persons from Pit River, West Irian have been studied for genetic variants in 14 red cell enzyme and 5 serum protein systems. Four of the red cell enzyme systems were polymorphic: acid phosphatase, 6 phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, adenosine deaminase and phosphoglucomutase (locus 1). Two of the serum protein systems, haptoglobin and transferrin, were polymorphic. In the other systems three MDH “New Guinea-1” variants were detected and two persons with variants, one MS and one SS, in the protease inhibitor system were detected also. An unusual variant in the PGM (locus 2) system has not yet been adequately identified. All other systems were monomorphic.

A total of almost 200 members of a tribal group, the Chenchu from the Mahabubnagar and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh, have been tested for electrophoretic variation in a number of red cell enzyme systems. The former population has also been tested for ABO, MN and Rh blood group systems and for the serum proteins Hp, Tf and albumin. The most significant findings were the presence of the gene ry, and the occurrence of a polymorphism in PHI with the variant gene PHI5 having a gene frequency of 4%.

6 new PGD alleles are described. 2 of these (PGD Wantoat and PGD Canberra) control proteins that are electrophoretically slow: the other 4 control fast variants. The heterozygotes PGD A/PGD Wantoat and PGD A/PGD Canberra give similar band spacing after starch gel electrophoresis, but the relative intensities of the bands in the 2 patterns is different. Of the 4 fast variant alleles PGD Kadar controls a gene product with fastest mobility, PGD Caspian is slightly slower, whilst PGD Bombay and PGD Natal are similar in the mobility of their gene products, but differ in their reaction to treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol. After treatment with this reagent patterns involving PGD Natal revert to normal. None of the other gene products of the PGD alleles tested are affected by treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol. PGD Kadar was found to be polymorphic in the tribal Kadar population of south India. 3 distinctive new patterns were found in this population representing the homozygote PGD Kadar/PGD Kadar, the heterozygote PGD A/PGD Kadar and the heterozygote PGD C/PGD Kadar.

Allele frequencies are reported for 19 blood group, red cell enzyme, and serum protein loci (ABO, Rh, MN, Hb-A, LDH-A, LDH-B, SOD, PGM-1, PGM-2, 6PGD, GPT, ESD, ADA, ACP, PGK, MDH, Alb, Hp, and Tf) determined from 310 blood samples collected among the Gainj, a small population of tribal horticulturalists from highland Papua New Guniea. Fourteen of these loci display genetic variants, and ten of them are sufficiently polymorphic to permit a preliminary analysis of Gainj population structure. Patterns of variation among subdivisions of the population are analyzed using an approach analogous to a multivariate analysis of variance with unbalanced design, and weighted genetic distances are extracted from the results. The distance analysis indicates that patterns of genetic variation within this population reflect the geographical distribution of subdivisions, as well as subdivision size and movement among subdivisions. A parallel analysis of the Gainj and two other tribal groups from highland New Guinea, the Murapin Enga and the Simbai Valley Maring, suggests that the Gainj are both genetically divergent from neighboring populations and internally highly differentiated.

316 adults and children from an isolated community of Bali, Indonesia, have been tested for 18 red cell enzyme systems controlled by 24 loci, and haemoglobin. 13 loci were invariant. The other 11 loci showed variations similar to those found previously in Southeast Asian populations. Of special interest is the occurrence of lactate dehydrogenase Calcutta-1 variants, indicating Indian gene admixture, and PGM92, indicating a Melanesian genetic component. A few individuals were CA1 1-3Bali and this is possibly the same as other CA1 1-3 types found in the Philippines and Guam. Nearly 10% were glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficient and 2% carried Hb E. A fast electrophoretic variant of G6PD was detected in 5 persons. Two sub-groups of the population were studied. Gene frequencies in the Isolate supported the view that inbreeding and genetic drift have made this sub-group genetically distinct from the non-inbred part of the population.

As part of a multidisciplinary survey of populations in the Banks and Torres Islands of Vanuatu and the Southern and Central Districts of the Solomon Islands, nearly 2,400 persons have been tested for ABO blood groups and a number of serum protein and red cell enzyme genetic marker systems. For the ABO system, the populations are characterized in general by high gene O and low gene B frequencies except in two of the Polynesian Outlier Islands, Rennell and Bellona, which have high frequencies of B. Among the serum proteins, several alleles have distributions indicating significant movement of people between islands. These include AlbuminNew Guinea and the transferrin alleles Tf, and Tf, and Tf. Similar specific alleles for red cell enzymes also show distributions reflecting interisland population movement as well as contact with persons from outside the southern Pacific region. Examples are ACP in the acid phosphatase system, PGM and PGM, PGM and PGM, PGK4 and also HbJTongariki. The data available for 11 polymorphic systems were used to generate genetic distances. Of the four Polynesian Outlier Islands, Anuta is most remote genetically, with Rennell and Bellona also relatively isolated. The fourth Polynesian Outlier, Tikopia, occupies a position genetically close to the Melanesian populations of the Banks and Torres Islands and the southern Solomons. The history of early European contact and voyaging in the Pacific, as well as archaeological and linguistic evidence and local legends, indicate that significant movements of people occurred between islands and provided opportunities for genes to be introduced from Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The genetic marker studies give evidence for genes from all these sources, though at a low level. Despite this admixture, the Polynesian Outlier and Melanesian populations have preserved their own distinctive genetic patterns.

101 Samoans living in New Zealand, of whom 77 had no known non-Samoan ancestry, have been typed for nine blood group systems, four serum protein and 23 red cell enzyme systems, for haemoglobin variants and antigens at the HLA A nad B loci. The frequencies of genes in these various systems suggest that Samoans fall partly into an island Melanesian-Micronesian pattern, and partly are unique. Their uniqueness is most distinctive for the HLA system.

A total of 418 Parsis and 48 Zoroastrian Iranis were sampled in Bombay and tested for 9 red cell enzyme systems controlled by genes at 11 loci. There were marked differences between Parsis and Iranis

17 examples of genetically controlled variation of LDH have been encountered in a survey of 1331 Indian blood samples collected in Calcutta and Madras. 15 of the variants (10 in Calcutta and 5 in Madras) were identical and have been given the trivial name ‘Calcutta-1’. The other 2 examples were found in Madras and have been called ‘Madras-1’. ‘Calcutta-1’ is an A-subunit variant, whilst ‘Madras-1’ is a B-subunit variant. The overall frequency of LDH variants in India (1.28 per cent) is among the highest reported for any population in the world.

The number of "private" electrophoretic variants of enzymes controlled by 25 loci has been used to obtain estimates of mutation rate in Australian Aborigines. Three different methods yield values of 6.11 X 10(-6), 2.78 X 10(-6), and 12.86 X 10(-6)/locus per generation for the total sample of Aborigines. One tribal population of Waljbiri in central Australia gives values of 2.99 X 10(-6) and 2.04 X 10(-6) for two of the methods, the third being unapplicable. The mean mutation rate for the total Aboriginal sample of 7.25 X 10(-6) is very similar to the value obtained by Neel and his colleagues for Amerindians in South America.

Data for the distribution of alleles controlling two blood group systems and secretor status, for hemoglobin types, five serum protein groups and 15 red cell enzyme systems has been obtained. Eleven of the systems showed polymorphic variation and these systems have been used to calculate genetic distances using Morton's Kinship measure. No systematic relationship between genetic distance and geographic location of linguistic affiliation is apparent. There is, however, an apparent cline of decreasing frequency of PGDc from east to west and also significant differences in the frequency of G6PD deficiency corresponding to variation in the ecology of the region. Genetic distance comparisons with other selected populations reveal that the Turkic and Turkoman speaking peoples in the Caspian area cluster with the Kurds, Greeks and Iranis. The Persian speakers are genetically remote from these populations; they are, however, close to the Parsis who migrated from Iran to India at the end of the Seventh Century A.D. Several unusual genetic variants were detected, including a novel MDH pheno-type, a superoxide dismutase phenotype identical with the Scandinavian type, and rare forms of LDH, PGM locus 2, ceruloplasmin, diaphorase, peptidases and PHI.

316 adults and children from an isolated community of Bali, Indonesia, have been tested for 18 red cell enzyme systems controlled by 24 loci, and haemoglobin. 13 loci were invariant. The other 11 loci showed variations similar to those found previously in Southeast Asian populations. Of special interest is the occurrence of lactate dehydrogenase Calcutta-1 variants, indicating Indian gene admixture, and PGM92, indicating a Melanesian genetic component. A few individuals were CA1 1-3Bali and this is possibly the same as other CA1 1-3 types found in the Philippines and Guam. Nearly 10% were glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficient and 2% carried Hb E. A fast electrophoretic variant of G6PD was detected in 5 persons. Two sub-groups of the population were studied. Gene frequencies in the Isolate supported the view that inbreeding and genetic drift have made this sub-group genetically distinct from the non-inbred part of the population.

More than 11000 blood samples have been examined for glutamicpyruvic transaminase (GPT) and almost 9000 for Esterase D (EsD) in the Asian-Pacific area; GPT3 and GPT6 were detected in several population groups in New Guinea, Singapore and some Pacific islands. No previously undescribed alleles were found in either system.

A total of more than 800 placentae from six different population groups have been examined for electrophoretic variation in 13 enzyme systems. Whilst, in many instances, the phenotype designation is presumptive, having been arrived at after critical visual comparison with illustrations in the literature, a number of new alleles have been reported here and further population genetic data have been presented. Two new alleles, MPI3 and MPI4 are described in the mannose phosphate isomerase system the former in both the Port Moresby sample and in the Chinese, whilst the latter was restricted to the Chinese samples. Also, the New Guinea MDHs 3-1 phenotype has been detected for the first time in placentae. In addition, a new allele in the aconitase system, ACONs8 has been described in the Chinese samples.

Phenotype distributions and gene frequencies of nine red cell enzyme systems and haemoglobin are presented for six tribal populations from the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh. AEO, MN and Rh blood group data are presented for four of these tribes. The results have been compared with these from other Andhra Pradesh tribal Populations. The Yerukula tribe are notable for the presence of PGM7 1 at polymorphic frequency, the occurrence of a single example of PGM10 2 and the absence of Hbs.

Blood samples of 1,266 individuals were collected from three caste populations; Nava Budha (Mahar), Maratha, and a mixed group of Scheduled castes from each of three districts of Maharashtra, Nagpur, Akola, and Thane. The samples were tested for 12 enzyme systems, viz., AcPh, AK, CA-I, CA-II, Est-D, LDH, MDH, Oxidase, PGM-1, PGM-2, 6-PGD, and PHI. The gene frequencies of these loci are within the ranges observed among the Indian populations so far studied. The total differences in gene frequencies for each polymorphic locus was partitioned into three components, i.e., the differences between caste populations, the differences between regions, and the differences due to interaction between caste populations and regions. The results show that besides caste variation for two loci, Est-D and PGM-1, the gene frequencies for AK, Est-D, and G-6PD loci have different geographical distributions.

A sample of 105 coastal people and 82 mountain dwellers from Goodenough Island, off the eastern tip of Papua New Guinea have been tested for four blood group systems, haemoglobin, 17 enzyme systems and four serum proteins. Transferrins D1 and Blae were found in both populations and the frequency of almost 29% for PGDc in the mountain people is one of the highest for the region. Deficiency of G-6 PD and the presence of PGK4 were detected only in the coastal populations.

Three distinctive genes which control variants of carbonic anhydrase (CA) have been detected in tests on nearly 3000 Aboriginals from various parts of Australia. Two of these genes affect the products of the CA1 locus, the other affects the products of the CA2 locus. In some populations of Aboriginals, more than 10% of persons have a variant carbonic anhydrase. It is suggested that such an unusual frequency of CA variants may be an evolutionary response to metabolic stress connected either with low zinc concentrations in the diet or with the altered needs of ion regulation in an arid environment.

320 adults and children of an isolated community of Bali, Indonesia, have been tested for blood groups ABO, Rh, MNS, P, Lewis, Duffy, Kell, for haptoglobin and transferrin and for hepatitis B surface antigen and antibodies. Phenotype distribution and gene frequencies are given for the total population tested and for two subgroups representative of the inbred population of the isolate and of the non-inbred part of the population. Significant differences between the two subgroups show a clear genetic drift in the inbred population. The study brings biological support to the ethnological hypothesis of population migrations in this area. Tests for hepatitis B surface antigen reveal a lower prevalence of the disease than in most other south-east Asian populations.

Frequency distributions were determined for 24 red cell enzyme and four serum protein systems, in an attempt to identify a genetic marker associated with either amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or parkinsonism-dementia (PD), two progressive and fatal neurological disorders of unknown cause found with unusually high incidence among the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. No striking associations were identified between either disorder and any of the gene markers tested. Thus, no genetic cause is known for either disease; local environmental factors are most likely involved in pathogenesis.

The distribution of genetic variants at the PGM1 and PGM2 loci in South and East Asia, the Western Pacific and Australasia has been surveyed on the basis of published and unpublished material comprising samples from some 33,000 persons. A critical comparsion of previously described and of new rare alleles at both loci has been undertaken. The present number for PGM1 is 14 and for PGM2 is 12. Many of these have restricted geographic or ethnic distribution.

A survey of more than 21 000 haemolysates from blood samples collected in various parts of south and southeast Asia, Australasia and the Western Pacific and examined in this laboratory has revealed several new alleles controlling variants of sMDH; in addition, further information has been provided on the distribution of sMDH3 in New Guinea. Two of the variant alleles, sMDH3 and sMDH6, achieve polymorphic frequency in various populations. sMDH3 is widely distributed in New Guinea, with highest frequencies in the Eastern Highlands. The pattern of its distribution suggests the mutant arose originally in a Papuan-speaking populations. So far, sMDH6 has been detected only in Micronesians from a number of islands in the Carolines. A single example of another new variant, sMDH 5-1, and two examples of a slow variant, sMDH 7-1, were detected in samples from Iran and Singapore, respectively. No examples of mMDH variants were found in a total of 652 placental extracts from Papua New Guinea and Australia.

A total of 220 persons belonging to the Kolam tribe in the Adilabad District of northwest Andhra Pradesh have been tested for 18 red cell eyzyme systems and for haemoglobin. Generally, the gene frequencies for the systems which showed electrophoretic variation were within the range for Indian populations; the gene frequency for AK1 is high by Indian standards and Hb AS is present. LDH Calcutta 1 was not detected in this population and a single example of PHI 2-1 was observed.

A total of 332 persons from three localities in the Fiji Islands have been tested for genetic variation in 24 red cell enzyme systems and 4 serum protein systems. Polymorphic variation was present at 7 red cell enzyme loci and 1 serum protein locus. The remaining systems were invariant except for a single individual with a slow variant at the GOT1 locus and another individual with a D variant at the TF locus. The series from Nandi differed significantly from the Lau Islands for gene frequencies in GPT, ACP and ESD, Koro Island differed from the other localities at the PGD locus and from Nandi for ESD. Genetic distance analysis reveals that Lau Islands cluster with Western Samoa, Koro Island with New Caledonia (Vanuatu), with Nandi being separate.

Data on rare and private electrophoretic variants have been used to estimate mutation rates for populations belonging to 55 language groups in Papua New Guinea. Three different methods yield values of 1.42 x 10(-6), 1.40 x 10(-6), and 5.58 x 10(-6)/locus per generation. The estimates for three islands populations off the north coast of New Guinea--Manus, Karkar, and Siassi--are much lower. The variability in mutation rates estimated from rare electrophoretic variants as a function of population size is discussed. The mean mutation rate in Papua New Guinea is less than half the estimates obtained for Australian Aborigines and Amerindians.

GENETIC VARIATION AT THE THIRD LOCUS OF PHOSPHOGLUCOMUTASE IN PLACENTAS FROM AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Blood samples from 45 Usiai and 138 Manus people on the Island of Manus, New Guinea, have been tested for the ABO, MN, Ss, Rh, P, Duffy, Kell and Gerbich blood-group systems, the haptoglobin, transfer

THE DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD, SERUM PROTEIN AND ENZYME GROUPS IN A SERIES OF LEBANESE IN AUSTRALIA

188 blood samples from Batak of Samosir Island (Sumatra, Indonesia) have been studied for electrophoretic variants of haemoglobin, 14 red cell enzyme and 5 serum protein systems. The acid phosphatase, 6 PGD, PGM1 and ADA enzyme systems are polymorphic, and a single AK 2-1 person was detected. Polymorphism is present in the haptoglobin, transferrin and protease inhibitor systems. Two variant alleles, TfDchi and TfB are present in the transferrin system, but the B variant has not been identified. Similarly, 3 persons with caeruloplasmin variants were found, but also these variants have not been identified. No abnormal haemoglobins were detected. All other systems revealed the presence of only normal phenotypes.

SUMMARY More than 4000 blood samples from populations in Japan, Micronesia, Singapore, West Irian, New Guinea and Australia have ben typed for phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) and phosphohexose isomerase (PHI) Normal PGK-1 patterns were observed in all populations except in Micronesia, parts of West Irian and the Western and Eastern Highlands of New Guinea. In Micronesia both PGK-2 and PGK2-1 patterns were observed and the gene frequency of pgk2 was 0.07. In West Irian and the Highlands of New Guinea PGK-4 and PGK 4-1 patterns were observed and the highest pgk4 frequency was 0.051 among males in the Western Highlands. Only nine individuals were detected with PHI variant patterns. One PHI 2-1 was found in a Chinese and two PHI 3-1 persons were observed among Malays in Singapore, four PHI 5-1 in the Western Highlands of New Guinesa and one PHI 5-1 in a Japanese: one PHI 4-1 was found among Aborigines in Northern Australia.