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There is a continued need for the advancement of natural emulsifiers to replace synthetic emulsifiers, driven by human health concerns. This study is aimed at producing protein-polysaccharide conjugates through the Maillard reaction and at evaluating its ability as an emulsifier based on its emulsifying properties. The proteins used in this study were bovine milk whey protein and soy protein isolates, while the polysaccharides were maltodextrin and pectin. The protein-polysaccharide conjugation used a Maillard reaction under dry heating conditions. The protein and polysaccharide mass ratios were 1 : 2 and 1 : 3. The results showed that the types of proteins and polysaccharides and their mass affect the surface tension of the conjugate products. Whey protein-pectin conjugates with a mass ratio of 1 : 2 and a concentration of 1% had the lowest surface tension at 43.77 dyne/cm 2 . This conjugate sample also showed the highest emulsifying index at 27.20 m 2 /g. The conjugate powder containing pectin as a polysaccharide showed better emulsifying activity than that of those containing maltodextrin. However, the smallest droplet size of the emulsion (256.5 nm) resulted from the emulsification process using whey protein-maltodextrin conjugates as an emulsifier. The FTIR and gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis confirmed the conjugation formation. In general, protein-polysaccharide conjugates containing whey protein could potentially act as a natural emulsifier for food., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Iceu Agustinisari et al.)

Hydrophobic curcumin in temulawak extract and hydrophilic betacyanin in red dragon fruit extract are high-value bioactive compounds with extensive applications in functional food. In this study, these extracts were encapsulated in water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) nanoemulsions as a delivery system using a two-step high-energy emulsification method. PGPR and Span 20 were used as lipophilic emulsifiers for the primary w/o emulsion. The most stable w/o/w formulation with the least oil phase separation of 5% v / v consisted of w/o emulsion (15% w / w ) and Tween 80 (1.5% w / w ) as hydrophilic emulsifier. The formulation was characterized by a 189-nm mean droplet diameter, 0.16 polydispersity index, and -32 mV zeta potential. The freeze-thaw stability may be attributed to the combination of low w/o emulsion content and high Tween 80 concentration in the outer water phase of the w/o/w nanoemulsions used in this study. The IC 50 values of the nanoemulsion and the red dragon fruit extract were similar. It means that the higher concentration of curcumin in the nanoemulsions and the lower IC 50 value of temulawak extract ensured sufficient antioxidant activities of the w/o/w nanoemulsions.

Biodiesel is a renewable plant-based fuel as an alternative for fossil diesel fuel which has many advantages. However, its high content of unsaturated fatty acid causes an oxidation instability during storage. Numerous additives have been used and developed to overcome this problem such as the application of phenolic compound-based antioxidants. Pyrogallol is reported to be one of the best phenolic antioxidants for biodiesel. Unfortunately, pyrogallol has a low solubility in oil solution. In this research, pyrogallol solubility is increased by preparing a pyrogallol derivative through a reaction between pyrogallol and methyl linoleate in the presence of radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The spectrophotometric method was used for solubility test. Antioxidant potential was examined using acid value determination during a four-week storage period as well as the Rancimat test to see its performance under accelerated oxidation conditions. The reaction produced a molecule which has a molecular weight of 418 g/mol, representing pyrogallol derivative which has a new C-O covalent bond with methyl linoleate. The result was confirmed by using nuclear magnetic resonance ( 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR, and 2D-HMQC) resulting in a molecular structure of methyl (10E,12E)-9-(2,6-dihydroxyphenoxy)octadeca-10,12-dienoate and its isomer methyl (9E,11E)-13-(2,6-dihydroxyphenoxy)octadeca-9,11-dienoate with a yield of 12.86% and selectivity of 21.05% on the basis of pyrogallol. Compared to pyrogallol, tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), and gallic acid, the pyrogallol derivative has the highest solubility and acid value stability in palm oil biodiesel. The Rancimat induction time (IP) result of the pyrogallol derivative is higher than the biodiesel and is above the accelerated oxidation test American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D 6751 standard., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Chitosan has been a popular option for tissue engineering, however exhibits limited function for bone regeneration due to its low mechanical robustness and non-osteogenic inductivity. Here we hybridized chitosan with TiO 2 nanoparticles to improve its bone regeneration capability. Morphology and crystallographic analysis showed that TiO 2 nanoparticles in anatase-type were distributed evenly on the surface of the chitosan sponges. Degradation test showed a significant effect of TiO 2 nanoparticles addition in retaining its integrity. Biomineralization assay using simulated body fluid showed apatite formation in sponges surface as denoted by PO 4- band observed in FTIR results. qPCR analysis supported chitosan - TiO 2 sponges in bone regeneration capability as indicated by DMP1 and OCN gene upregulation in TiO 2 treated group. Finally, cytotoxicity analysis supported the fact that TiO 2 nanoparticles added sponges were proved to be biocompatible. Results suggest that chitosan-50% TiO 2 nanoparticles sponges could be a potential novel scaffold for bone tissue engineering.

In the palm oil industry, the deacidification process is performed by steam stripping which causes the loss of most of palm oil's natural antioxidants due to high temperature. The liquid-liquid extraction process which is carried out at low temperature is preferable in order to preserve these compounds. The use of hydrated ethanol can reduce the losses of antioxidants, but the ability of this solvent to extract free fatty acids also decreases. Betaine monohydrate-based natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) have extensive potential for this process. The selectivity of these NADES was determined to select a preferable solvent. The betaine monohydrate-glycerol NADES in a molar ratio of 1:8 was determined to be the preferred solvent with the highest selectivity. This solvent has an efficiency of palmitic acid extraction of 34.14%, and the amount of antioxidants can be preserved in the refined palm oil up to 99%. The compounds are stable during extraction., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)