Search

Fourteen new cytochalasans, brunnesins A–N (1–14), along with eleven known compounds, were isolated from the culture extracts of the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium brunneum strain TBRC-BCC 79240. more...

Pestalotiopsis and related genera, including Neopestalotiopsis and Pseudopestalotiopsis have damaged many plants for many decades; however, there is little available information about the fungi on tropical fruit in Thailand. This study isolated and characterized pestalotioid fungi on tropical fruit, investigated host specificity, and screened whether plant extracts could control the fungi. In total, 53 diseased fruit samples were sampled from eight types of fruit trees (jackfruit, rose apple, mangosteen, plum, snake fruit, rambutan, strawberry, and avocado). Based on morphological characteristics, 44 isolates were classified as belonging to pestalotioid taxa. Of these isolates, seven with distinct characteristics were selected for identification using molecular analysis, and six isolates were identified as Neopestalotiopsis and one as Pseudopestalotiopsis. In the cross-inoculation experiment, the isolates exhibited nonhost specificity and could infect at least two host plants. The isolates were used to screen for a potential biocontrol resource using six crude plant extracts (clove, ginger, lemongrass, mangosteen, roselle, and turmeric). All crude extracts except mangosteen could inhibit the growth of Neopestalotiopsis and Pseudopestalotiopsis. Application of crude plant extracts could be a potential treatment to control these diseases on tropical fruit. more...

Six new compounds 1–6 and two new naturally occurring compounds 7 and 8, together with nine known compounds 9–14, beauverioride I, dipicolinic acid, and 6-(methoxycarbonyl) picolinic acid were isolated from a wasp-pathogenic fungus Beauveria asiatica, strain BCC 16812. Their structures were determined by extensive spectroscopic analyses. The absolute configurations of compound 6 were established by the application of modified Mosher’s method and ECD calculation. Compounds 9–11 exhibited antimalarial (IC50 0.47–1.79 u g/mL), antimicrobial (MIC 3.13–50.0 u g/mL), and cytotoxic (IC50 0.26–1.23 u g/mL) activities, while compounds 1, 2, 8, and 14 showed only cytotoxicity against Vero cell lines, with IC50 values range 12.96–47.03 u g/mL. more...

Thirteen tetrahydroxanthone dimers, atrop-ascherxanthone A (1), ascherxanthones C-G (2-6), and confluxanthones A-G (7-13), were isolated from the entomopathogenic fungus Aschersonia confluens BCC53152. The chemical structures were determined based on analysis of NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric data. The absolute configurations of compounds 1 and 7 were confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction experiments, while the configurations of other compounds were assigned based upon evidence from NOESY and NOEDIFF experiments, modified Mosher's method, and ECD spectroscopic data together with biogenetic considerations. Compounds 1, 3-5, 7-11, and 13 showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum (K1, multidrug-resistant strain) (IC50 0.6-6.1 μM), antitubercular activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra (MIC 6.3-25.0 μg/mL), and cytotoxicity against NCI-H187 (IC50 0.5-3.5 μM) and Vero (IC50 0.9-6.1 μM) cells. All tested compounds except for compound 9 exhibited cytotoxicity against KB cells (IC50 1.3-9.7 μM). more...

The genus Candelabrum, an aero-aquatic fungus, produces chandelier-shaped conidia that can float on the water. Seven species have been described in the genus. Our phylogenetic analysis based on the D1/D2 regions of the large subunit rDNA (LSU) revealed that the genus Candelabrum contains two separate lineages, C. spinulosum group (C. clathrosphaeroides, C. desmidiaceum, C. japonense, and C. spinulosum, the type species) nested in Leotiomycetes, and C. brocchiatum group (C. brocchiatum and C. microsporum) in Sordariomycetes. The two groups were distinctive in conidial morphology, especially for the presence/absence of the conidial basal plate. To accommodate the latter group, a new genus Brocchiosphaera is proposed along with a new species, B. bulbiformis. Furthermore, the phylogenetic tree inferred from LSU indicated that C. spinulosum group was closely related to Hyaloscypha in Helotiales, whereas Brocchiosphaera (the C. brocchiatum group) belonged to Pisorisporiales. Strains of H. occulta (NBRC 108595 and SANK 13397) clustered with C. japonense and C. clathrosphaeroides in phylogenetic tree inferred from combined sequence data of the RNA polymerase II gene, the internal transcribed spacer regions and 5.8S rDNA (ITS) and LSU, and NBRC 108595 produced conidia of C. japonense in submerging culture. Thus, H. occulta was proved to be a teleomorph of C. japonense. This finding warrants transferring all species of the C. spinulosum group (Candelabrum sensu stricto) to Hyaloscypha and proposing four new combinations H. desmidiacea, H. japonensis, H. macrospora, and H. spinulosa. more...

A new fungus, Muyocopron thailandica, collected from a dead plant sample in northern Thailand, is described and compared with other described species of Muyocopron. Multi-gene phylogenetic analyses based on LSU and ITS sequence data indicated that M. thailandica forms a distinct lineage within the genus Muyocopron, and is closely related to M. castanopsis and M. lithocarpi. Muyocopron thailandica differs from these two species in having ellipsoid to subcylindrical asci, with a very short and thin pedicel and oval to obovoid ascospores. Asci and ascospores of M. thailandica are larger than those of M. castanopsis and M. lithocarpi. Morphological description and a detailed illustration of the new species are provided. more...

Fourteen new compounds, oudemansins 1–4, oudemansinols 5–7, favolasins 8–10, favolasinin (12), polyketides 13–15, and (R,E)-2,4-dimethyl-5-phenyl-4-pentene-2,3-diol (16), together with nine known c... more...

During our studies of microfungi from Thailand, Triadelphia hexaformispora sp. nov. collected from decaying wood in a freshwater habitat in Nan Province, Thailand, is described and illustrated. Based on newly generated sequences of the nuclear ribosomal DNA and partial sequence of the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase, Triadelphia species clustered in two monophyletic sister clades in Triadelphiaceae (Microascales, Hypocreomycetidae, Sordariomycetes), one clade accommodates T. heterospora, the type species of Triadelphia, T. diversa, T. loudetiae, T. hexaformisspora, and T. romanica and the second clade incudes T. moubasheri, T. pulvinata, and T. disseminata. Two other species, Triadelphia stilboidea and T. synnematofera (morphological data only) group in a separate clade for which we propose the new genus Synnematotriadelphia. Molecular clock analyses suggest that Triadelphiaceae evolved in the middle Cretaceous, ca. 105 (74–142) million years ago. more...

Tretoheliocephala cylindrospora is described and illustrated as a new species collected from a decaying twig of an unidentified plant in Phu Laenkha National Park, Chaiyaphum Province, northeastern Thailand. The new fungus, which is compared with T. compacta, the type species of the previously monotypic genus, is characterized by unbranched conidiophores that produce solitary, oblong or cylindrical, unicellular conidia. more...

Six new compounds, named conoideoglucosides A − C and conoideochromanes A − C, together with eight known compounds, including eutypinic acid, 2,2-dimethyl-2H-1-chromene-6-carboxylic acid, (−)-luteoskyrin, (−)-4a-oxyluteoskyrin, chrysophanol, islandicin, catenarin, and (22E)-5α,8α-epidioxyergosta-6,22-dien-3β-ol were isolated from the insect fungus Conoideocrella krungchingensis BCC53666. (−)-Luteoskyrin exhibited a broad range of antimicrobial activity such as antimalarial (IC50 0.51 μg/mL), antitubercular (MIC 6.25 μg/mL), antibacterial (both Gram positive; MIC 0.39–1.56 μg/mL and Gram negative; MIC 3.13–12.50 μg/mL), and antifungal (against various plant pathogens; MIC 3.13–50.00 μg/mL) activities, while (−)-4a-oxyluteoskyrin and catenarin showed weaker antibacterial activity. Moreover, eutypinic acid, (−)-luteoskyrin, (−)-4a-oxyluteoskyrin, and catenarin showed cytotoxicity against NCI-H187 cells with IC50 in a range of 0.16–17.99 μg/mL, while eutypinic acid and catenarin had no cytotoxicity against non-cancerous (Vero) cells at maximum tested concentration (50 μg/mL). The complete NMR spectral data and biological activity of the known (−)-4a-oxyluteoskyrin was also reported for the first time. more...

Species of Kionochaeta are saprobes commonly associated with decaying plant materials. As a part of surveys on freshwater microfungi, Kionochaeta-like taxon was found on a submerged decaying twig at a rivulet in the protected forest area of Khao Kheow Open Zoo (KKOZ), eastern Thailand. This taxon is microscopically similar to Kionochaeta, but clearly differs by its accessory lateral setiform branches and sterile setae arising beside the conidiophores. Multi-locus phylogenies inferred from four combined loci (SSU, ITS, LSU and RPB2) demonstrated that this taxon clustered as a unique clade with Kionochaeta species (Chaetosphaeriaceae, Chaetosphaeriales). Therefore, we introduce this taxon as K. setosimplicia, and it is phylogenetically close to K. castaneae, K. ramifera and K. pughii. Kionochaeta setosimplicia is separated from K. microspora and K. spissa. In Kionochaeta clade 1, K. nanophora forms a basal taxon. Kionochaeta ivoriensis forms a distinct Kionochaeta clade 2 distant from other Kionochaeta. more...

In an investigation of stromatic Xylariales in Thailand, several specimens of Daldinia were discovered. Three novel species (D. flavogranulata, D. phadaengensis, and D. chiangdaoensis) were recognized from a molecular phylogeny based on concatenated ITS, LSU, RPB2, and TUB2 sequence data, combined with morphological characters and secondary metabolite profiles based on high performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection and mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). The major components detected were cytochalasins (in D. flavogranulata and D. chiangdaoensis) and daldinin type azaphilones (in D. phadaengensis). In addition, D. brachysperma, which had hitherto only been reported from America, was found for the first time in Asia. Its phylogenetic affinities were studied, confirming previous suspicions from morphological comparisons that the species is closely related to D. eschscholtzii and D. bambusicola, both common in Thailand. Daldinia flavogranulata, one of the new taxa, was found to be closely related to the same taxa. The other two novel species, D. phadaengensis and D. chiangdaoensis, share characters with D. korfii and D. kretzschmarioides, respectively. more...

The substantial use of fungal enzymes to degrade lignocellulosic plant biomass has widely been attributed to the extensive requirement of powerful enzyme-producing fungal strains. In this study, a two-step screening procedure for finding cellulolytic fungi, involving a miniaturized culture method with shake-flask fermentation, was proposed and demonstrated. We isolated 297 fungal strains from several cellulose-containing samples found in two different locations in Thailand. By using this screening strategy, we then selected 9 fungal strains based on their potential for cellulase production. Through sequence-based identification of these fungal isolates, 4 species in 4 genera were identified: Aspergillus terreus (3 strains: AG466, AG438 and AG499), Penicillium oxalicum (4 strains: AG452, AG496, AG498 and AG559), Talaromyces siamensis (1 strain: AG548) and Trichoderma afroharzianum (1 strain: AG500). After examining their lignocellulose degradation capacity, our data showed that P. oxalicum AG452 exhibited the highest glucose yield after saccharification of pretreated sugarcane trash, cassava pulp and coffee silverskin. In addition, Ta. siamensis AG548 produced the highest glucose yield after hydrolysis of pretreated sugarcane bagasse. Our study demonstrated that the proposed two-step screening strategy can be further applied for discovering potential cellulolytic fungi isolated from various environmental samples. Meanwhile, the fungal strains isolated in this study will prove useful in the bioconversion of agricultural lignocellulosic residues into valuable biotechnological products. more...

Four previously undescribed compounds, including (Z)-chloromonilinic acid B (1), (E)-chloromonilinic acid C (2), 4-chlorocurvularin (5), and 4-chlorocurvularinic acid (6), together with four known compounds, (E)-chloromonilinic acids A and B, pinselin, and anhydromevalonolactone, were isolated from the fungus Curvularia sp. BCC52426. The chemical structures were determined by comparing their NMR spectra to documented spectra of the related compounds and the isolated compounds were also appraised for antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity. more...

A new hydroanthraquinone, nigrosporone A (1), and a new naturally occurring nigrosporone B (2), together with eleven known compounds, were isolated from an endophytic fungus, Nigrospora sp. BCC 47789. The structure of nigrosporone A was confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis. The absolute configurations of nigrosporone B were determined by the modified Mosher’s method. Nigrosporone B exhibited a broad range of biological activities including antimalarial, antitubercular, antibacterial and cytotoxic activities, while nigrosporone A and Fusaquinon A showed only cytotoxic activity. more...

Conioscypha nakagirii, a novel fungus, is described and illustrated from decaying submerged wood collected in a small stream in Pak Chong District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand. Morphologically, it differs from known Conioscypha species and similar taxa in that it has large, turbinate to pyriform, black and smooth-walled conidia. Phylogenetic analysis of three loci (nuc 18S and nuc 28S, and RPB2) supports a placement of this taxon as a new species in Conioscypha (Conioscyphales, Hypocreomycetidae, Sordariomycetes), as a sister group to a clade including C. lignicola, C. japonica, C. varia and C. peruensis, and shares some morphological characteristics with C. fabiformis and C. taiwaniana. Both morphological and molecular evidence justifies the introduction of the new species, C. nakagirii. more...

Eleven previously undescribed sesquiterpenes 1 – 4 (named incarnatins A − D) and 6 – 12 (named incarnolactones A − C, incarnatin E, incarnate methyl ester, incarnetic acid, and incarnatenin), together with two known compounds, chondrosterin B ( 13 ) and ( E )-dictyochromenol ( 14 ), were isolated from the mushroom Gloeostereum incarnatum BCC41461. The chemical structures were determined on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic information together with their specific rotation values for identification of the stereochemistry. Compounds were evaluated for antimicrobial activity, including antimalarial, antituberculosis, and anti- Bacillus cereus , along with cytotoxicity against both cancerous and non-cancerous cells. Compounds 1 and 8 exhibited antimalarial (IC 50 9.80 μg/mL) and anti- B. cereus (MIC 25 μg/mL) activities, respectively, with low cytotoxicity. In addition, incarnatin B ( 2 ) and chondrostenin B ( 13 ) displayed strong antimalarial activity with respective IC 50 values of 3.93 and 3.10 μg/mL, while compound 14 showed anti-TB and anti- B. cereus with MIC 12.50 and 1.56 μg/mL, respectively. more...

Twelve new compounds, including nine tropolones, nemanolones A−I (1–9), three 7-isochromenones, nemanecins A−C (10–12), and a new naturally isolated 4-isochromanone (13), along with two known compounds, 7,8-dihydroxy-3-methyl isochroman-4-one (XJP), and chaetoquadrin F, were isolated from culture broth of the fungus Nemania sp. BCC 30850. Structures of these compounds were elucidated by NMR and MS spectroscopic analyses. Nemanolones exhibited cytotoxic activities and two of them, compounds 1 and 2, also showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus and antifungal activity against Candida albicans. more...

Fourteen new compounds, oudemansins

Five new compounds, iranginins A-E (

Two unknown enantiomeric compounds, named (

Sordariomycetes is one of the largest classes of Ascomycota that comprises a highly diverse range of fungi characterized mainly by perithecial ascomata and inoperculate unitunicate asci. The class includes many important plant pathogens, as well as endophytes, saprobes, epiphytes, coprophilous and fungicolous, lichenized or lichenicolous taxa. They occur in terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats worldwide. This paper reviews the 107 families of the class Sordariomycetes and provides a modified backbone tree based on phylogenetic analysis of four combined loci, with a maximum five representative taxa from each family, where available. This paper brings together for the first time, since Barrs’ 1990 Prodromus, descriptions, notes on the history, and plates or illustrations of type or representative taxa of each family, a list of accepted genera, including asexual genera and a key to these taxa of Sordariomycetes. Delineation of taxa is supported where possible by molecular data. The outline is based on literature to the end of 2015 and the Sordariomycetes now comprises six subclasses, 32 orders, 105 families and 1331 genera. The family Obryzaceae and Pleurotremataceae are excluded from the class. more...

Four xanthones (1‒4) and a known compound, mansonone D (5), were isolated from the lignicolous freshwater fungus BCC 28210 (family, Chaetosphaeriaceae). The structures of these compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis. Among the isolated metabolites, compound 2 and the known mansonone D (5) displayed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum K1 with IC50 values of 7.75 and 0.55 μg/mL, respectively. Compound 4 displayed antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus with an MIC value of 6.25 μg/mL. more...

Two unknown enantiomeric compounds, named (R)- and (S)-taeniolin, along with six known compounds, were isolated from the marine-associated fungus Taeniolella sp. BCC31839. Chemical structures were determined by NMR spectroscopic techniques, and the absolute configurations were confirmed by Mosher application together with CD spectral analyses. Both were inactive for antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant malaria parasite (Plasmodium falciparum) and bacteria (Mycobacerium tuberculosis and Bacillus cereus) at maximum tested concentration. more...

Six new compounds, including three acremonidins F–H ( 1 , 3 , and 5 ), two acremoxanthones F–G ( 7 and 8 ), and acremonoxide ( 10 ), along with eight known compounds ( 2 , 4 , 6 , 9 , 11 – 14 ) were isolated from Verticillium sp. BCC33181. Their structures were determined based on extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectral analyses, mass spectrometric data and by comparison with the known compounds reported previously. The relative configurations were identified based upon NOESY spectroscopic information as well as comparison of CD spectrum with the known analogs. Both acremonidins and acremoxanthones exhibited anti- Bacillus cereus activity (MIC 0.39–25 μg/mL), while acremonidins F ( 1 ), A ( 2 ), G ( 3 ), and C ( 4 ) also displayed anti- Enterococcus faecium activity (MIC 1.56–25 μg/mL). In addition, acremoxanthones F ( 7 ) and G ( 8 ) showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum K1 strain, multidrug–resistant strain, with respective IC 50 values of 2.38 and 1.71 μg/mL, while others were inactive. more...

Five highly oxygenated chromones, rhytidchromones A-E, were isolated from the culture broth of a mangrove-derived endophytic fungus, Rhytidhysteron rufulum, isolated from Thai Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Their structures were determined by analysis of 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data. The structure of rhytidchromone A was further confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. These compounds were evaluated for cytotoxicity against four cancer cell lines (MCF-7, Hep-G2, Kato-3 and CaSki). All compounds, except for rhytidchromone D, displayed cytotoxicity against Kato-3 cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 16.0 to 23.3μM, while rhytidchromones A and C were active against MCF-7 cells with IC50 values of 19.3 and 17.7μM, respectively. more...

Twelve new compounds, including (−)-oudemansin A acid (1), (−)-oudemansin A ethyl ester (3) and (−)-oudemansin X ethyl ester (5), (+)-oudemansin A lactone (6) and (+)-oudemansin X lactone (7), (+)-dihydrooudemansinol (8), (−)-11-epidihydrooudemansinol (9), (+)-xeruhydrofuranol (10), (+)-9-epixeruhydrofuranol (11), xerucitrinic acids A (14) and B (15), and (2R,3R,8aR)-2-(E-hept-5-en-1-yl)-3-methyltetrahydro-2H-pyrrolo[2,1-b][1,3]oxazin-4(3H)-one (16) and one naturally new compound, strobilurin A acid (12), together with nine known compounds such as (−)-oudemansins A (2) and X (4), (3Z,5E)-3-methyl-6-phenylhexa-3,5-dien-1-ol (13), 2-(E-hept-5-en-1-yl)-3-methyl-6,7,8,8a-tetrahydro-4H-pyrrolo[2,1-b][1,3]oxazin-4-one (17), scalusamides A–C (18–20), phenol A acid (21), and dihydrocitrinone (22), were isolated from the mushroom Xerula sp. BCC56836. Their chemical structures were established based on the information from NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric analyses, specific rotation values, and chemical means. A plausible biosynthesis of xerucitrinic acids A (14) and B (15), the first citrinin dimers with spiro skeletons, was also proposed. In addition, the isolated compounds were evaluated for antimicrobial activity, including antimalarial, antifungal, and antibacterial activities, and their cytotoxicity against both cancerous (MCF-7, KB, NCI-H187) and non-cancerous (Vero) cells. Compounds 2, 4, and 5 possessed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum, K1 strain (IC50 1.19–13.70 μM) and compounds 3–5, 12–14, and 17 exhibited anti-Bacillus cereus activity (MIC 12.5–25.0 μg mL−1). Most isolated compounds showed low cytotoxicity against both cancerous and non-cancerous cells. more...

Three new oxygen-bridged cyclooctadiene containing compounds, 5–7, phomoxydienes A–C, and two new dothiorelones I (8) and J (9), together with 10 known compounds were isolated from endophytic fungus, Phomopsis sp. BCC 45011. Structures were determined by NMR spectroscopic and MS spectrometric analyses. Mycoepoxydiene (1), deacetylmycoepoxydiene (2), phomoxydienes A (5) and C (7), and cytosporone E (12) displayed antimalarial and cytotoxic activities while 1893 A (3) and cytosporone P (13) showed only cytotoxic and antimalarial activity, respectively. more...

Eleven previously undescribed compounds, including cytosporanthraxanthone, xanthoquinodins A7–A10, ketoxanthoquinodin A6, xanthoquinodins B6–B8, and spiroxanthoquinodins A and B, and one synthetically known compound, 2-methoxy pinselin, as well as ten known compounds, including xanthoquinodins A4−A6, B4, and B5, chrysophanol, physcion, (4S)-5-hydroxy-4-methoxy-α-tetralone, (4S)-4,8-dihydroxy-α-tetralone (or isosclerone), and gonytolide C were isolated from the fungus Cytospora eugeniae BCC42696. Their chemical structures were determined based on the analysis of NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric data. Moreover, the absolute configurations of the unknown compounds were established by using NOESY and NOEDIFF NMR experiments along with CD spectroscopic data. The isolated xanthoquinodins exhibited a broad range of antimalarial, antibacterial, and fungicidal activities as well as cytotoxicity. Xanthoquinodins A6, B4, and B5 showed strong activity to Plasmodium falciparum, K1 strain (IC50 0.52–0.92 μM) and displayed anti-Bacillus cereus (MIC 1.56 μg/mL). Xanthoquinodin A6 also showed anti-Curvularia lunata (MIC 3.13 μg/mL). In addition, xanthoquinodins A4, A6, B4, and B5 and ketoxanthoquinodin A6 showed cytotoxicity against both cancerous (MCF-7, KB, NCI-H187) and non-cancerous (Vero) cells. more...

Eight new substances including penicisochromans F–L, and penicibenzoxepinol along with seven known substances were isolated from the endophytic Penicillium sp. BCC18034. Their chemical structures were determined based on 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data and HR-ESI-MS analyses. Biological activities against Plasmodium falciparum, MCF-7, NCI-H187, and Vero cells of the isolated compounds were also reported. more...

To promote the decomposition of sugarcane bagasse (SCB) for conversion into value-added products and to reduce waste, the capability of fungal mixes (FMs) to degrade SCB was examined. A total of 169 isolates from SCB and non-SCB were categorized as thermotolerant and thermoresistant. Thirty-six fungal candidates were screened for the presence of polyphenol oxidase, endoglucanase (EDN) and xylanase (XLN) activities, and EDN and XLN activities were quantitated. Five identified isolates (Aspergillus flavus AG10; Aspergillus niger AG68 & NB23; and Penicillium citrinum AG93 & AG140) were selected as the best enzyme producers, and 15 moderately to highly xylolytic, cellulolytic and ligninolytic isolates were added to construct FMs. Using a Taguchi design, the top ten reducing sugar-producing FMs (no. 12 showed the maximum amount of reducing sugar, at 2.11 mg g−1, followed by no. 7, 15, 2, 16, 11, 13, 6, 4, & 8) were selected as potential agents for decomposition durations of 1, 2 and 3 months. The maximum decrease in SCB materials compared with the control was generated by FM 6 (9.08% cellulose reduction); FM 13 (21.03% hemicellulose reduction); and FM 16 (9.21% lignin reduction). These results indicate the potential use of SCB as a substrate for synergistic FMs. These FMs could be applied to the large-scale composting of SCB and other related agricultural residues, thus improving the biological pretreatment of lignocellulose. more...