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This article explores the processes involved in the creation and expression of an ethnic identity for minority groups. It uses nationally representative quantitative data from the British Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities to describe the components that make up ethnic identity for ethnic minority people in the UK and to explore how these components are patterned within and between ethnic groups. Five underlying dimensions of ethnic identity were identified using factor analysis: two related to self description, a traditional identity, participating in 'community', and being a member of a racialized group. There was considerable similarity, but also some difference, in these dimensions across the ethnic groups included. The article concludes that the structure of ethnic identity is similar across ethnic minority groups in Britain, but that there is some diversity of identity within ethnic groups; perhaps as a consequence of how the factors that structure ethnic identity vary across demographic groups. Keywords: Ethnicity; minority; identity; racism; tradition; community.

Differences in health across ethnic groups have been documented in the United States and the United Kingdom. The extent to which socioeconomic inequalities underlie such differences remains contested, with many instead focusing on cultural or genetic explanations. In both the United States and the United Kingdom, data limitations have greatly hampered investigations of ethnic inequalities in health. Perhaps foremost of these is the inadequate measurement of ethnicity, but also important is the lack of good data on socioeconomic position, particularly data that address life-course issues. Other elements of social disadvantage, particularly experiences of racism, are also neglected. The author reviews existing evidence and presents new evidence to suggest that social and economic inequalities, underpinned by racism, are fundamental causes of ethnic inequalities in health.

We set out to explore the influence of environment on ethnic inequalities in health. Studies exploring the relationship between environment and health have tended to ignore the role of ethnicity, and the health impact of the residential concentration of ethnic minority groups in disadvantaged areas. Those that have explored the role of ethnicity tend to focus on the way in which residential concentration may promote a sense of community among ethnic minority groups, and, consequently, may be protective of health (the `ethnic density effect'). Again, they have tended to ignore the health impact of the concentration of ethnic minority groups in areas of social and economic disadvantage. We undertook a factor analysis to determine aspects of perception of `quality' of the local environment, followed by multi-level analyses to explore the relationship between self-reported fair or poor health and individual- and ward-level characteristics among four ethnic groups (Caribbean, Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi, and white) in the UK. Results of the factor analysis suggested three underlying dimensions of perception of quality of the local area, related to the quality of the local environment, the provision of local amenities and local problems of crime and nuisance. These factors were entered into the multi-level models at level 2, along with indicators of ward-level ethnic density and Townsend's deprivation score, with age, gender and household social class entered at level 1. In general, there was a residual random ward-level effect suggesting an area influence on self-assessed health. However, on the whole, none of the ward-level indicators showed any statistically significant association with self-assessed health, making it difficult to precisely determine the mechanisms operating. These findings suggest, though, that there is no ethnic density effect on self-assessed health for ethnic minority groups. Keywords: Ethnicity; Environment; Ethnic density; Health; Multi-level modelling; Social class, UK

Objectives. This study explored associations between racism, social class, and health among ethnic minority people in England and Wales. Methods. We conducted a series of regression analyses on cross-sectional data from the Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities to explore the relation between different indicators of racism and health and household occupational class. Results. Marked independent associations existed between reported experience of racism and perceptions of Britain as a 'racist society,' household social class, age, sex, and various mental and physical health indicators. These associations showed reasonable consistency across the different ethnic groups. Conclusions. The different ways in which racism may manifest itself (as interpersonal violence, institutional discrimination, or socioeconomic disadvantage) all have independent detrimental effects on health, regardless of the health indicator used.

This article investigates the relationship between ethnicity, racism, and health in London. An analysis of cultural lifestyles, social structure, self-presentation is presented.

Previous work has established that women with good marriages are less at risk of depression of clinical severity following a crisis than women in poor quality relationships. Evidence for such protectiveness is less clear for men. The paper examines the relationship between marital quality, onset of depression, and gender following a severely threatening life event. The results show that good quality of marriage related to lower rates of depression for both men and women, although the overall rate for women was higher. For women with a good marital relationship, but for whom support from partner was not forthcoming at the time of the crisis (i.e. the person was 'let down'), risk was increased, confirming a result from a study in Islington. The current study shows that the same set of findings holds for men. Gender differences did emerge when the subjective need for support within the marital relationship is taken into account, with women expressing greater need. However, such a desire for support was not necessarily translated into support-seeking behaviour as in a poor relationship turning to a partner was frequently inopportune. Women were also more likely to seek support outside the marriage: as in the earlier Islington research this was related to a lower risk of depression for those in a poor relationship. An unexpected finding was that men who received support outside marriage had an increased risk of depression. Key words - marriage quality, gender differences, supportive context, support seeking

In this article we use the example of race/ethnic inequalities in severe mental illness to demonstrate the utility of a novel integrative approach to theorising the role of racism in generating inequality. Ethnic minority people in the UK are at much greater risk than White British people of being diagnosed with a severe – psychosis related – mental illness, and this is particularly the case for those with Black Caribbean or Black African origins. There is entrenched dispute about how we might understand the drivers of this inequality. To address this dispute we build on, and to a certain extent refine, established approaches to theorising structural and institutional racism, and integrate this within a theoretical framework that also incorporates racist/discriminatory interactions (interpersonal racism). We argue that this provides a conceptually robust and thorough analysis of the role of inter‐related dimensions of racism in shaping risks of severe mental illness, access to care, and policy and practice responses. This analysis carries implications for a broader, but integrated, understanding of the fundamental drives of race/ethnic inequalities in health and for an anti‐racism public health agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE. Patterns of breastfeeding vary considerably across different racial/ethnic groups; however, little is known about factors that might explain differences across and within different racial/ethnic groups. Here we examine patterns of breastfeeding initiation and continuation among a racially/ethnically diverse sample of new mothers and compare this with patterns seen in the United States. The effects of demographic, social, economic, and cultural factors on racial/ethnic differences in breastfeeding practices are assessed. METHODS. The sample includes all singleton infants whose mothers participated in the first survey of the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study. Missing data reduced the sample to 17 474 (96%) infants with complete data. RESULTS. After adjustment for demographic, economic, and psychosocial factors, logistic regression models showed that Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, black Caribbean, and black African mothers were more likely to initiate breastfeeding compared with white mothers. Further adjustment for a marker of cultural tradition attenuated these relationships, but all remained statistically significant, suggesting that some of the difference was a consequence of cultural factors. After adjustment for demographic, economic, and psychosocial factors, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, black Carribbean, and black African mothers were more likely to continue breastfeeding at 3 months compared with white mothers. Additional adjustment for a marker of cultural tradition attenuated the relationship for Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and black African mothers, but all remained statistically significant. Models run for breastfeeding continuation at 4 and 6 months were consistent with these results. CONCLUSIONS. We have shown that in the United Kingdom the highest breastfeeding rates are among black and Asian mothers, which is in stark contrast to patterns in the United States, where the lowest rate is seen among non-Hispanic black mothers. The contrasting racial/ethnic patterns of breastfeeding in the United Kingdom and United States necessitate very different public health approaches to reach national targets on breastfeeding and reduce health disparities. Those who implement future policies aimed at increasing breastfeeding rates need to pay attention to different social, economic, and cultural profiles of all racial/ethnic groups. KEY WORDS. race, ethnicity, breastfeeding, psychosocial., URL: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2006-0714 Yvonne J. Kelly, BSc, PhD, Richard G. Watt, BDS, PhD, James Y. Nazroo, MBBS, MSc, [...]