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This Review summarises recent pharmacological and upcoming alternative interventions for children with functional abdominal pain disorders (FAPDs). Pharmacological targets include prokinetics and drugs affecting gastric accommodation to treat postprandial distress and nausea. Similarly, anti-inflammatory agents, junctional protein regulators, analgesics, secretagogues, and serotonin antagonists have a therapeutic role for irritable bowel syndrome. Non-pharmacological treatments include peripheral electrical nerve field stimulation to the external ear, gastric electrical stimulation, dietary interventions such as low fructose and fibre based diets, and nutraceuticals, which include probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics. Newer psychological advances such as exposure-based cognitive behavioural therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and mindfulness meditation are being investigated for paediatric functional pain. Lastly, alternative therapies such as acupuncture, moxibustion, yoga, and spinal manipulation are also gaining popularity in the treatment of FAPDs.

To assess the relationship between self-efficacy, the belief that an individual can succeed at a goal, and short-term treatment outcome in children with functional constipation.Patients with functional constipation age 8-16 years completed the Self-Efficacy for Functional Constipation Questionnaire (SEFCQ), consisting of 14 statements about performing tasks needed for defecation. Patients completed SEFCQ before, immediately after, and 3 weeks after their clinic visit. Treatment success was defined as ≥3 bowel movements into the toilet and no fecal incontinence in the third week.75% of patients had a successful outcome. Scores were higher in the group that was successful than in those that failed before, immediately after the visit, and 3 weeks later (P .001). Self-efficacy improved at all time points in the group that was successful (P .001). In the group that failed, scores improved immediately after clinic visit (P .01) but were unchanged at follow-up (P .05).Improved self-efficacy is associated with successful outcomes in children with functional constipation, thus, it may be beneficial to enhance self-efficacy for defecation during treatment.

Percutaneous electrical nerve field stimulation (PENFS) improves symptoms in adolescents with functional abdominal pain disorders (FAPDs). However, little is known about its impact on sleep and psychological functioning. We evaluated the effects of PENFS on resting and evoked pain and nausea, sleep and psychological functioning, and long-term outcomes.Patient ages 11-19 years with FAPD requiring PENFS as standard care were recruited. Evoked pain was elicited by a Water Load Symptom Provocation Task (WL-SPT) before and after four weeks of treatment. Pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, sleep, somatic symptoms, and physical and psychological functioning were assessed. Actigraphy was used to measure daily sleep-wake patterns.Twenty patients (14.3 ± 2.2 years old) with FAPD were enrolled. Most patients were females (70%) and white (95%). During pain evoked by WL-SPT, visual analog scale (VAS) pain intensity and nausea were lower following PENFS compared with baseline (p = 0.004 and p = 0.02, respectively). After PENFS, resting VAS pain unpleasantness (p = 0.03), abdominal pain (p 0.0001), pain catastrophizing (p = 0.0004), somatic complaints (0.01), functional disability (p = 0.04), and anxiety (p = 0.02) exhibited significant improvements, and some were sustained long-term. Self-reported sleep improved after PENFS (p's 0.05) as well as actigraphy-derived sleep onset latency (p = 0.03).We demonstrated improvements in resting and evoked pain and nausea, sleep, disability, pain catastrophizing, somatic complaints, and anxiety after four weeks of PENFS therapy. Some effects were sustained at 6-12 months post-treatment. This suggests that PENFS is a suitable alternative to pharmacologic therapy.

Objectives Antroduodenal manometry (ADM) is used to evaluate antral and small intestinal motility, with the presence of phase III migrating motor complexes (MMC) indicating an intact enteric neuromuscular system. The lack of evidence-based or consensus-driven established norms for MMC in fasting phase and after provocative testing marks a major limitation in the interpretation of ADM studies. We aimed to determine the characteristics of MMC in fasting and post-provocative phase in children. Methods Data from subjects aged ≤ 20 years with ADM results evaluated at Neuro-gastroenterology and Motility Disorders Center, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center from January 2018 to March 2019 were analyzed. Results Forty-eight ADM tracings that did not demonstrate abnormal patterns were included; the mean age was 10.00 ± 5.72 years and 50% were male. Indications for ADM included: vomiting (27.1%), feeding intolerance (27.1%), abdominal pain (16.6%), nausea (14.6%), and abdominal distension (14.6%). Thirty-seven percent of subjects had enteral access for feeds. During fasting, one-third of all MMC originated in the antrum. Azithromycin-induced MMC occurred in 28% of subjects and two-thirds of these originated in the antrum with antral contractions of significantly higher frequency and amplitude compared to fasting. Octreotide significantly increased frequency, amplitude, and duration of MMC compared to fasting, with 76% originating in the antrum. Both azithromycin and octreotide induced more than one MMC in a third of subjects. Conclusions We describe the characteristics of antral and small intestinal motility during fasting and after provocative testing in children. These values will help standardize our interpretation of pediatric ADM studies.

Functional constipation (FC) is a pervasive problem in pediatrics. Although pharmaceuticals are commonly used for FC, parents and patients show reluctance or find dissatisfaction with available medications at times. Further, patients often have interest in utilizing nutraceutical supplements and botanicals that are available over the counter. This literature review aims to summarize research studies performed on non-pharmacologic approaches to constipation and to evaluate the safety and efficacy of these modalities. Overall data on non-pharmacologic treatments for childhood constipation were sparse, and though some studies were available for adult populations, pediatrics studies were generally limited, lacking or flawed. Certain supplements, such as prebiotics, probiotics and fiber, are safe and are without significant side effects. Though fiber supplements such as glucomannan, green banana mass, cocao husk and various fiber blends have emerging evidence in children, evidence for psyllium, cellulose and flaxseed only have supportive studies in adults. Other than senna, studies of botanicals indicate significant safety concerns (in particular with Aloe vera with aloin and Cascara sagrada) and insufficient evidence. For patients with a significant behavioral or anxiety component to their FC and exhibit dyssynergia, mind-body interventions (e.g. diaphragmatic breathing, biofeedback, cognitive behavioral therapy, and behavioral modifications) are certainly safe and effective. Finally, movement and manipulative interventions such as abdominal massage, reflexology, acupuncture and transcutaneous nerve stimulation show promise in the field of pediatric constipation, and data is accumulating for efficacy. These modalities require further study to determine mechanisms of action and which populations may benefit the most from these therapies.

BACKGROUND Motor abnormalities of pharyngeal contraction or upper esophageal sphincter (UES) relaxation can lead to swallowing problems. METHODS We reviewed high-resolution esophageal manometry of children ≤18 years and classified into two groups based on the results of videofluoroscopic study of swallow (VFSS), as normal or abnormal. The UES metrics (integrated relaxation pressure [IRP], resting pressure [URP], and nadir pressure [UNP]), as well as peak pharyngeal pressure (velopharyngeal and meso-hypopharyngeal), were analyzed. RESULTS UES metrics: There were 142 and 19 subjects in the normal and abnormal groups, respectively. In the normal group, the median UES-IRP at 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 seconds, URP, and UNP were 1.0, 4.0, 11.0, 18.0, 53.5, and -1.0 mm Hg while in the abnormal group were 10.0, 13.0, 21.0, 25.5, 47.0, and 8.0 mm Hg. The UES-IRP at 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 seconds, and UNP was significantly higher in the abnormal group. Pharyngeal metrics: We included 58 subjects in normal and 10 subjects in the abnormal group. The median of peak velopharyngeal and meso-hypopharyngeal pressures were lower in the abnormal group; 188.50 vs 210.50, P = .185 and 110.00 vs 144.75 mm Hg, P = .065. CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES The UES-IRP was lower than adults, URP was higher than preterm but less than adults, and UNP was lower than neonates but similar to adults. The pharyngeal pressures were higher than those reported for neonates and adults. Our data indicate that motor dynamics of swallowing may change from neonates to adulthood and reflect a maturational process. The subjects with abnormal VFSS had significantly higher UES-IRP and UNP compared to normal VFSS.

Neuromodulation, also known as bioelectric neuromodulation or neurostimulation, is the therapeutic use of electrical stimulation of nerves or brain centers. Neuromodulation has been trialed in an increasing range of human diseases as well as gastrointestinal disorders. The application of neuromodulation to treat pediatric motility and functional disorders is an exciting recent development. This review aims to briefly discuss the use of neuromodulation for the treatment of pediatric gastroparesis, constipation, and visceral hyperalgesia.

Cholecystectomy rates for biliary dyskinesia in children are rising in the United States, but not in other countries. Biliary dyskinesia is a validated functional gallbladder disorder in adults, requiring biliary colic in the diagnosis. In contrast, most studies in children require upper abdominal pain, absent gallstones on ultrasound, and an abnormal gallbladder ejection fraction (GBEF) on cholecystokinin-stimulated cholescintigraphy for diagnosis. We aimed to systematically review existing literature in biliary dyskinesia in children, determine the validity and reliability of diagnostic criteria, GBEF, and to assess outcomes following cholecystectomy. We performed a systematic review following the PRISMA checklist and searched 7 databases including PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Ovid, MEDLINE, ProQuest, Web of Science, and the Cochrane library. Bibliographies of articles were screened for additional studies. Our search terms yielded 916 articles of which 28 were included. Three articles were manually added from searched references. We reviewed 31 peer-reviewed publications, all retrospective chart reviews. There was heterogeneity in diagnostic criteria and GBEF values. Outcomes after laparoscopic cholecystectomy varied from 34% to 100% success, and there was no consensus concerning factors influencing outcomes. The observational, retrospective study designs that comprised our review limited interpretation of safety and efficacy of the investigations and treatment in biliary dyskinesia in children. Symptoms of biliary dyskinesia overlapped with functional dyspepsia. There is a need for consensus on symptoms defining biliary dyskinesia, validation of testing required for diagnosis of biliary dyskinesia, and randomized controlled trials comparing medical versus surgical management in children with upper abdominal pain.

Vitamin deficiencies are common in inflammatory bowel disease. Here we present 5-year follow-up data of 61 patients. No folate or vitamin B12 deficiency was identified throughout the study. A daily multivitamin supplement was sufficient to replete 100% of vitamin A-deficient and vitamin E-deficient patients. A total of 52% of vitamin D-deficient patients corrected, but 15% who had normal vitamin D levels at diagnosis developed deficiency. A total of 63% of zinc-deficient patients normalized their zinc status, but 15% developed zinc deficiency at follow-up despite supplementation.