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Venom production has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Venomous shrews produce venom in their submandibular salivary glands and use it for food acquisition. Only a few toxins have been identified in shrew venoms thus far, and their modes of action require investigation. The biological and molecular processes relating to venom production and gland functioning also remain unknown. To address this gap, we investigated protein content in extracts from venom glands of two shrew species, Neomys fodiens and Sorex araneus, and interpreted their biological functions. Applying a proteomic approach coupled with Gene Ontology enrichment analysis, we identified 313 and 187 putative proteins in venom glands of N. fodiens and S. araneus, respectively. A search of the UniProt database revealed that most of the proteins found in both shrew species were involved in metabolic processes and stress response, while GO enrichment analysis revealed more stress-related proteins in the glands of S. araneus. Molecules that regulate molecule synthesis, cell cycles, and cell divisions are necessary to enable venom regeneration and ensure its effectiveness in predation and food hoarding. The presence of proteins involved in stress response may be the result of shrews' high metabolic rate and the costs of venom replenishment. Some proteins are likely to promote toxin spreading during envenomation and, due to their proteolytic action, reinforce venom toxicity. Finally, finding numerous proteins involved in immune response suggests a potential role of shrew venom gland secretions in protection against pathogens. These findings open up new perspectives for studying biological functions of molecules from shrew venom glands and extend our knowledge on the functioning of eulipotyphlan venom systems. Because the majority of existing and putative venomous mammals use oral venom systems to inject venom into target species, the methods presented here provide a promising avenue for confirming or discovering new taxa of venomous mammals., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Since the early 2000s, studies of the evolution of venom within animals have rapidly expanded, offering new revelations on the origins and development of venom within various species. The venomous mammals represent excellent opportunities to study venom evolution due to the varying functional usages, the unusual distribution of venom across unrelated mammals and the diverse variety of delivery systems. A group of mammals that excellently represents a combination of these traits are the slow ( Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy lorises ( Xanthonycticebus spp.) of south-east Asia, which possess the only confirmed two-step venom system. These taxa also present one of the most intriguing mixes of toxic symptoms (cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity) and functional usages (intraspecific competition and ectoparasitic defence) seen in extant animals. We still lack many pieces of the puzzle in understanding how this venom system works, why it evolved what is involved in the venom system and what triggers the toxic components to work. Here, we review available data building upon a decade of research on this topic, focusing especially on why and how this venom system may have evolved. We discuss that research now suggests that venom in slow lorises has a sophisticated set of multiple uses in both intraspecific competition and the potential to disrupt the immune system of targets; we suggest that an exudate diet reveals several toxic plants consumed by slow and pygmy lorises that could be sequestered into their venom and which may help heal venomous bite wounds; we provide the most up-to-date visual model of the brachial gland exudate secretion protein (BGEsp); and we discuss research on a complement component 1r (C1R) protein in saliva that may solve the mystery of what activates the toxicity of slow and pygmy loris venom. We conclude that the slow and pygmy lorises possess amongst the most complex venom system in extant animals, and while we have still a lot more to understand about their venom system, we are close to a breakthrough, particularly with current technological advances.

Genetic analysis of historical museum collections presents an opportunity to clarify the evolutionary history of understudied primate groups, improve taxonomic inferences, and inform conservation efforts. Among the most understudied primate groups, slow and pygmy lorises (genera Nycticebus and Xanthonycticebus ) are nocturnal strepsirrhines found in South and Southeast Asia. Previous molecular studies have supported five species, but studies using morphological data suggest the existence of at least nine species. We sequenced four mitochondrial loci, CO1, cytb, d-loop , and ND4 , for a total of 3324 aligned characters per sample from 41 historical museum specimens for the most comprehensive geographic coverage to date for these genera. We then combined these sequences with a larger dataset composed of samples collected in Vietnam as well as previously published sequences (total sample size N = 62). We inferred phylogenetic relationships using Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood methods based on data from each locus and on concatenated sequences. We also inferred divergence dates for the most recent common ancestors of major lineages using a BEAST analysis. Consistent with previous studies, we found support for Xanthonycticebus pygmaeus as a basal taxon to the others in the group. We also confirmed the separation between lineages of X. pygmaeus from northern Vietnam/Laos/China and southern Vietnam/Cambodia and included a taxonomic revision recognizing a second taxon of pygmy loris, X. intermedius . Our results found support for multiple reciprocally monophyletic taxa within Borneo and possibly Java. The study will help inform conservation management of these trade-targeted animals as part of a genetic reference database for determining the taxonomic unit and provenance of slow and pygmy lorises confiscated from illegal wildlife trade activities.

Southeast Asia is considered a global hotspot of emerging zoonotic diseases. There, wildlife is commonly traded under poor sanitary conditions in open markets; these markets have been considered 'the perfect storm' for zoonotic disease transmission. We assessed the potential of wildlife trade in spreading viral diseases by quantifying the number of wild animals of four mammalian orders (Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and Primates) on sale in 14 Indonesian wildlife markets and identifying zoonotic viruses potentially hosted by these animals. We constructed a network analysis to visualize the animals that are traded alongside each other that may carry similar viruses. We recorded 6725 wild animals of at least 15 species on sale. Cities and markets with larger human population and number of stalls, respectively, offered more individuals for sale. Eight out of 15 animal taxa recorded are hosts of 17 zoonotic virus species, nine of which can infect more than one species as a host. The network analysis showed that long-tailed macaque has the greatest potential for spreading viral diseases, since it is simultaneously the most traded species, sold in 13/14 markets, and a potential host for nine viruses. It is traded alongside pig-tailed macaques in three markets, with which it shares six viruses in common (Cowpox, Dengue, Hepatitis E, Herpes B, Simian foamy, and Simian retrovirus type D). Short-nosed fruit bats and large flying foxes are potential hosts of Nipah virus and are also sold in large quantities in 10/14 markets. This study highlights the need for better surveillance and sanitary conditions to avoid the negative health impacts of unregulated wildlife markets.

The evolution of venom and the selection pressures that act on toxins have been increasingly researched within toxinology in the last two decades, in part due to the exceptionally high rates of diversifying selection observed in animal toxins. In 2015, Sungar and Moran proposed the 'two-speed' model of toxin evolution linking evolutionary age of a group to the rates of selection acting on toxins but due to a lack of data, mammals were not included as less than 30 species of venomous mammal have been recorded, represented by elusive species which produce small amounts of venom. Due to advances in genomics and transcriptomics, the availability of toxin sequences from venomous mammals has been increasing. Using branch- and site-specific selection models, we present the rates of both episodic and pervasive selection acting upon venomous mammal toxins as a group for the first time. We identified seven toxin groups present within venomous mammals, representing Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla and Monotremata: KLK1, Plasminogen Activator, Desmallipins, PACAP, CRiSP, Kunitz Domain One and Kunitz Domain Two. All but one group (KLK1) was identified by our results to be evolving under both episodic and pervasive diversifying selection with four toxin groups having sites that were implicated in the fitness of the animal by TreeSAAP (Selection on Amino Acid Properties). Our results suggest that venomous mammal ecology, behaviour or genomic evolution are the main drivers of selection, although evolutionary age may still be a factor. Our conclusion from these results indicates that mammalian toxins are following the two-speed model of selection, evolving predominately under diversifying selection, fitting in with other younger venomous taxa like snakes and cone snails-with high amounts of accumulating mutations, leading to more novel adaptions in their toxins.

Accelerometers offer unique opportunities to study the behaviour of cryptic animals but require validation to show their accuracy in identifying behaviours. This validation is often undertaken in captivity before use in the wild. While zoos provide important opportunities for trial field techniques, they must consider the welfare and health of the individuals in their care and researchers must opt for the least invasive techniques. We used positive reinforcement training to attach and detach a collar with an accelerometer to an individual Bengal slow loris ( Nycticebus bengalensis ) at the Shaldon Wildlife Trust, U.K. This allowed us to collect accelerometer data at different periods between January-June 2020 and January-February 2021, totalling 42 h of data with corresponding video for validation. Of these data, we selected 54 min where ten behaviours were present and ran a random forest model. We needed 39 15-min sessions to train the animal to wear/remove the collar. The accelerometer data had an accuracy of 80.7 ± SD 9.9% in predicting the behaviours, with 99.8% accuracy in predicting resting, and a lower accuracy (but still >75% for all of them apart from suspensory walk) for the different types of locomotion and feeding behaviours. This training and validation technique can be used in similar species and shows the importance of working with zoos for in situ conservation (e.g., validation of field techniques).

Background: Snakes and primates have a multi-layered coevolutionary history as predators, prey, and competitors with each other. Previous work has explored the Snake Detection Theory (SDT), which focuses on the role of snakes as predators of primates and argues that snakes have exerted a selection pressure for the origin of primates' visual systems, a trait that sets primates apart from other mammals. However, primates also attack and kill snakes and so snakes must simultaneously avoid primates. This factor has been recently highlighted in regard to the movement of hominins into new geographic ranges potentially exerting a selection pressure leading to the evolution of spitting in cobras on three independent occasions., Results: Here, we provide further evidence of coevolution between primates and snakes, whereby through frequent encounters and reciprocal antagonism with large, diurnally active neurotoxic elapid snakes, Afro-Asian primates have evolved an increased resistance to α-neurotoxins, which are toxins that target the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. In contrast, such resistance is not found in Lemuriformes in Madagascar, where venomous snakes are absent, or in Platyrrhini in the Americas, where encounters with neurotoxic elapids are unlikely since they are relatively small, fossorial, and nocturnal. Within the Afro-Asian primates, the increased resistance toward the neurotoxins was significantly amplified in the last common ancestor of chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans (clade Homininae). Comparative testing of venoms from Afro-Asian and American elapid snakes revealed an increase in α-neurotoxin resistance across Afro-Asian primates, which was likely selected against cobra venoms. Through structure-activity studies using native and mutant mimotopes of the α-1 nAChR receptor orthosteric site (loop C), we identified the specific amino acids responsible for conferring this increased level of resistance in hominine primates to the α-neurotoxins in cobra venom., Conclusion: We have discovered a pattern of primate susceptibility toward α-neurotoxins that supports the theory of a reciprocal coevolutionary arms-race between venomous snakes and primates., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

The wildlife trade has facilitated the introduction of invasive non-native species, which may compete with native species for resources and alter ecosystems. Some of these species have great potential to become invasive if released or escaped from captivity. Here we studied the pet trade in a group of open countryside birds, the mynas ( Acridotheres spp.) in Indonesia, and identified the areas that are at high risk of facing the establishment of these species. Mynas are among the most invasive birds in Southeast Asia. Once established in a new area, they are almost impossible to eradicate and can have strong negative impacts on the ecosystem. Preventing their introduction is therefore essential. Yet, invasive non-native mynas continue to be traded openly. We present data on the trade in seven species of mynas on Java, Bali and Lombok, with three species being native to parts of one or two of these islands, but not to the remainder, and four that are non-native to the region. From 2016 to 2021 we conducted 255 surveys of 30 animal markets. We recorded over 6000 mynas that were offered for sale outside their native range. Areas most at risk because of their high prevalence in specific animal markets, are Greater Jakarta, eastern Java, Bali and Lombok. The number of invasive non-native mynas recorded was positively related to the size of the animal market. Indonesia is signatory to several international agreements (CBD, ASEAN) that have policies and guidelines to prevent the introduction of invasive non-native species, but compliancy is weak. Annually hundreds and possibly thousands of invasive non-native mynas are released by Indonesian conservation authorities in regions that are outside their native range. Effective management of, and regulation of trade in, potential invasive non-native birds in Indonesia falls short and inadvertently greatly aids both their introduction and establishment.

When navigating, wild animals rely on internal representations of the external world - called 'cognitive maps' - to take movement decisions. Generally, flexible navigation is hypothesized to be supported by sophisticated spatial skills (i.e. Euclidean cognitive maps); however, constrained movements along habitual routes are the most commonly reported navigation strategy. Even though incorporating metric information (i.e. distances and angles between locations) in route-based cognitive maps would likely enhance an animal's navigation efficiency, there has been no evidence of this strategy reported for non-human animals to date. Here, we examined the properties of the cognitive map used by a wild population of primates by testing a series of cognitive hypotheses against spatially explicit movement simulations. We collected 3104 h of ranging and behavioural data on five groups of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) at Palenque National Park, Mexico, from September 2016 through August 2017. We simulated correlated random walks mimicking the ranging behaviour of the study subjects and tested for differences between observed and simulated movement patterns. Our results indicated that black howler monkeys engaged in constrained movement patterns characterized by a high path recursion tendency, which limited their capacity to travel in straight lines and approach feeding trees from multiple directions. In addition, we found that the structure of observed route networks was more complex and efficient than simulated route networks, suggesting that black howler monkeys incorporate metric information into their cognitive map. Our findings not only expand the use of metric information during route navigation to non-human animals, but also highlight the importance of considering efficient route-based navigation as a cognitively demanding mechanism., Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2021. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

In mammals, colouration patterns are often related to concealment, intraspecific communication, including aposematic signals, and physiological adaptations. Slow lorises ( Nycticebus spp.) are arboreal primates native to Southeast Asia that display stark colour contrast, are highly territorial, regularly enter torpor, and are notably one of only seven mammal taxa that possess venom. All slow loris species display a contrasting stripe that runs cranial-caudally along the median sagittal plane of the dorsum. We examine whether these dorsal markings facilitate background matching, seasonal adaptations, and intraspecific signaling. We analyzed 195 images of the dorsal region of 60 Javan slow loris individuals ( Nycticebus javanicus ) from Java, Indonesia. We extracted greyscale RGB values from dorsal pelage using ImageJ software and calculated contrast ratios between dorsal stripe and adjacent pelage in eight regions. We assessed through generalized linear mixed models if the contrast ratio varied with sex, age, and seasonality. We also examined whether higher contrast was related to more aggressive behavior or increased terrestrial movement. We found that the dorsal stripe of N. javanicus changed seasonally, being longer and more contrasting in the wet season, during which time lorises significantly increased their ground use. Stripes were most contrasting in younger individuals of dispersal age that were also the most aggressive during capture. The dorsal stripe became less contrasting as a loris aged. A longer stripe when ground use is more frequent can be related to disruptive colouration. A darker anterior region by younger lorises with less fighting experience may allow them to appear larger and fiercer. We provide evidence that the dorsum of a cryptic species can have multimodal signals related to concealment, intraspecific communication, and physiological adaptations., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2021 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Seizures of hundreds of jaguar heads and canines in Central and South America from 2014 to 2018 resulted in worldwide media coverage suggesting that wildlife traffickers are trading jaguar body parts as substitutes for tiger parts to satisfy the demand for traditional Asian medicine. We compiled a data set of >1000 seized wild cats (jaguar [Panthera onca], puma [Puma concolor], and ocelot [Leopardus pardalis]) from 19 Central and South American countries and China. We ran generalized additive mixed models to detect trends in wild-cat seizures from 2012 to 2018 and assess the effects of socioeconomic factors of source countries and between those countries and China on the number of wild cats seized. Jaguar seizures increased over time, and most of the seized jaguar pieces were canines (1991 of 2117). Around 34% (32 of 93) of the jaguar-part seizure reports were linked with China, and these seizures contained 14-fold more individuals than those intended for domestic markets. Source countries with relatively high levels of corruption and Chinese private investment and low income per capita had 10-50 times more jaguar seizures than the remaining sampled countries. The number of Chinese residents in Central and South America was not significantly related to the number of jaguars seized. No socioeconomic factors influenced the seizures of puma and ocelots. Legal market chains may provide structure for the illegal chain; thus, the influx of illegal jaguar products is potentially a side effect of the economic partnership between Central and South American countries and China. Poverty and high levels of corruption in the source countries may motivate local people to engage in illegal activities and contribute to the growth of this trade. Supply-side interventions to curb this threat to Neotropical wild cats may include improved training for officials and promotion of governance and the value of protecting these animals to local people., (© 2020 The Authors. Conservation Biology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Conservation Biology.)

Slow lorises are enigmatic animal that represent the only venomous primate lineage. Their defensive secretions have received little attention. In this study we determined the full length sequence of the protein secreted by their unique brachial glands. The full length sequences displayed homology to the main allergenic protein present in cat dander. We thus compared the molecular features of the slow loris brachial gland protein and the cat dander allergen protein, showing remarkable similarities between them. Thus we postulate that allergenic proteins play a role in the slow loris defensive arsenal. These results shed light on these neglected, novel animals., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Background: Although navigating along a network of routes might constrain animal movement flexibility, it may be an energetically efficient strategy. Routinely using the same route allows for visually monitoring of food resources, which might reduce the cognitive load and as such facilitate the process of movement decision-making. Similarly, locating routes in areas that avoid costly landscape attributes will enhance their overall energy balance. In this study we determined the benefits of route navigation in an energy minimiser arboreal primate, the black howler monkey ( Alouatta pigra )., Methods: We monitored five neighbouring groups of black howler monkeys at Palenque National Park, Mexico from September 2016 through August 2017. We recorded the location of the focal group every 20 m and mapped all travel paths to establish a route network ( N  = 1528 travel bouts). We constructed linear mixed models to assess the influence of food resource distribution ( N  = 931 trees) and landscape attributes (slope, elevation and presence of canopy gaps) on the location of routes within a route network., Results: The number of food trees that fell within the visual detection distance from the route network was higher (mean: 156.1 ± SD 44.9) than randomly simulated locations (mean: 121.9 ± SD 46.4). Similarly, the number of food trees found within the monkey's visual range per meter travelled increased, on overage, 0.35 ± SE 0.04 trees/m with increasing use of the route. In addition, route segments used at least twice were more likely to occur with increasing density of food resources and decreasing presence of canopy gaps. Route segments used at least four times were more likely to occur in elevated areas within the home ranges but only under conditions of reduced visual access to food resources., Conclusions: Route navigation emerged as an efficient movement strategy in a group-living arboreal primate. Highly used route segments potentially increased visual access to food resources while avoiding energetically costly landscape features securing foraging success in a tropical rainforest., Competing Interests: Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© The Author(s). 2019.)

Among primates, the suborder Haplorhini is considered to have evolved a consolidated monophasic sleep pattern, with diurnal species requiring a shorter sleep duration than nocturnal species. Only a few primate species have been systematically studied in their natural habitat where environmental variables, including temperature and light, have a major influence on sleep and activity patterns. Here we report the first sleep study on a nocturnal primate performed in the wild. We fitted seven wild Javan slow lorises (Nycticebus javanicus) in West Java, Indonesia with accelerometers that collected activity data, and installed climate loggers in each individual's home range to collect ambient temperature readings (over 321 days in total). All individuals showed a strictly nocturnal pattern of activity and displayed a striking synchronisation of onset and cessation of activity in relation to sunset and sunrise. The longest consolidated rest episodes were typically clustered near the beginning and towards the end of the light period, and this pattern was inversely related to daily fluctuations of the ambient temperature. The striking relationship between daily activity patterns, light levels and temperature suggests a major role of the environment in shaping the daily architecture of waking and sleep. We concluded that well-known phenotypic variability in daily sleep amount and architecture across species may represent an adaptation to changes in the environment. Our data suggest that the consolidated monophasic sleep patterns shaped by environmental pressures observed in slow lorises represent phylogenetic inertia in the evolution of sleep patterns in humans.

The function of colouration in animals includes concealment, communication and signaling, such as the use of aposematism as a warning signal. Aposematism is unusual in mammals, and exceptions help us to understand its ecology and evolution. The Javan slow loris is a highly territorial venomous mammal that has a distinctive facial mask and monochromatic vision. To help understand if they use aposematism to advertise their venom to conspecifics or predators with different visual systems, we studied a population in Java, Indonesia. Using ImageJ, we selected colours from the facial masks of 58 individuals, converted RBG colours into monochromatic, dichromatic and trichromatic modes, and created a contrast index . During 290 captures, we recorded venom secretion and aggressiveness. Using Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling and generalised additive models for location, scale and shape, we found that young slow lorises differ significantly from adults, being both more contrasting and more aggressive, with aggressive animals showing fewer wounds. We suggest aposematic facial masks serve multiple purposes in slow lorises based on age. Change in colouration through development may play a role in intraspecific competition, and advertise toxicity or aggressiveness to competitors and/or predators in juveniles. Aposematic signals combined with intraspecific competition may provide clues to new venomous taxa among mammals., Competing Interests: There are no conflicts of interest to declare.

Objectives: Based on vocalization recordings of an unknown galago species, our main objectives were to compare morphology and call structure with known closely-related taxa and describe a new species of galago., Materials and Methods: We conducted field surveys in three forest habitats along the escarpment region in western Angola (Kumbira Forest, Bimbe Area, and Northern Scarp Forest), and examined galago specimens from museums worldwide. We digitized and analyzed calls using Avisoft SASLab Pro software. We also compared museum specimens from Angola with other Galago and Galagoides specimens, and conducted comparative analyses (ANOVA and between group principle component analysis) based on a set of twelve linear measurements of skulls and teeth., Results: We describe the new species to which we give the name Angolan dwarf galago, Galagoides kumbirensis sp. nov. The new species has a loud and characteristic crescendo call, used by other Galagoides spp. (sensu stricto) in West Africa to attract companions and repel rivals. However, this call shows species-typical differences from its closest relatives. Galagoides kumbirensis sp. nov. is also distinguished by differences in the skull morphology, pelage color and facial markings, as well as a larger body size, similar to that of Galago moholi, which is not known to be sympatric., Conclusion: This discovery points to the importance of Angolan forests as refuges for endemic biodiversity. These forests are under severe threat from overexploitation, and there is an urgent need to establish conservation measures and designate protected areas., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: To describe the strategy employed by exudativorous primates during seasonal shifts in food abundance using the Javan slow loris as a model. Males and females may cope differently as well as exploit fallback foods in different proportions., Materials and Methods: Observing 15 free ranging Javan slow lorises over a year, we quantified their seasonal diet and nutrient intake using intake rates. For gum intake rates, we conducted a trial with 10 captive Javan slow lorises measuring the length of time it took for them to ingest 10 g of gum. We monitored phenology in our field site over five plots that were assessed monthly. We weighed our free-ranging animals every six months. We analyzed all food items slow lorises ingested for macronutrients using the nutritional geometry framework., Results: The slow loris diet consisted of eight food categories, with gum and insects being the major food sources in terms of wet weight intake. The captive gum trials resulted in an intake rate of 0.021 g/s. All food items eaten by wild Javan slow lorises were available in the wet season and were restricted in the dry season. Males and females reacted differently to seasonal abundances with females ingesting more protein, gum, fruits and flowers and males ingesting more fiber., Conclusions: The strategy used by the Javan slow lorises during periods of lower food availability were similar to folivorous primates and included increased dependence on lower quality foods. The reproductive costs of gestation and lactation may place a burden on females that requires them to alter their foraging strategy during the dry season to ensure enough protein and overall energy is ingested. The overall strategy used by these exudativorous primates is one of nutrient maximization as no nutrient was clearly preferred over another., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Nonhuman primates, our closest biological relatives, play important roles in the livelihoods, cultures, and religions of many societies and offer unique insights into human evolution, biology, behavior, and the threat of emerging diseases. They are an essential component of tropical biodiversity, contributing to forest regeneration and ecosystem health. Current information shows the existence of 504 species in 79 genera distributed in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Asia. Alarmingly, ~60% of primate species are now threatened with extinction and ~75% have declining populations. This situation is the result of escalating anthropogenic pressures on primates and their habitats-mainly global and local market demands, leading to extensive habitat loss through the expansion of industrial agriculture, large-scale cattle ranching, logging, oil and gas drilling, mining, dam building, and the construction of new road networks in primate range regions. Other important drivers are increased bushmeat hunting and the illegal trade of primates as pets and primate body parts, along with emerging threats, such as climate change and anthroponotic diseases. Often, these pressures act in synergy, exacerbating primate population declines. Given that primate range regions overlap extensively with a large, and rapidly growing, human population characterized by high levels of poverty, global attention is needed immediately to reverse the looming risk of primate extinctions and to attend to local human needs in sustainable ways. Raising global scientific and public awareness of the plight of the world's primates and the costs of their loss to ecosystem health and human society is imperative.

The international trade in night monkeys (Aotus spp.), found throughout Central and South America, has been regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975. We present a quantitative analysis of this trade from all 9 range countries, over 4 decades, and compare domestic legislation to CITES regulations. Night monkeys were exported from 8 of the 9 habitat countries, totalling 5,968 live individuals and 7,098 specimens, with trade of live individuals declining over time. In terms of species, the most commonly traded was Aotus nancymaae (present in Brazil, Colombia, Peru) followed by A. vociferans (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) and A. zonalis (Colombia, Panama). There was no significant correlation between levels of trade and species' geographic range size or the number of countries in which a species occurs. Five countries have legislation that meets CITES requirements for implementation, whereas the other 4 countries' legislation showed deficiencies. Research conducted in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil suggests significant cross-border trade not captured in official international trade registers. Although international trade has diminished, current trends suggest that populations of rarer species may be under unsustainable pressure. Further research is needed to quantify real trade numbers occurring between habitat countries., (© 2017 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Background: Tropical marine molluscs are traded globally. Larger species with slow life histories are under threat from over-exploitation. We report on the trade in protected marine mollusc shells in and from Java and Bali, Indonesia. Since 1987 twelve species of marine molluscs are protected under Indonesian law to shield them from overexploitation. Despite this protection they are traded openly in large volumes., Methodology/principal Findings: We collected data on species composition, origins, volumes and prices at two large open markets (2013), collected data from wholesale traders (2013), and compiled seizure data by the Indonesian authorities (2008-2013). All twelve protected species were observed in trade. Smaller species were traded for 32,000 shells valued at USD500,000), chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius) (>3,000 shells, USD60,000) and giant clams (Tridacna spp.) (>2,000 shells, USD45,000) were traded in largest volumes. Two-thirds of this trade was destined for international markets, including in the USA and Asia-Pacific region., Conclusions/significance: We demonstrated that the trade in protected marine mollusc shells in Indonesia is not controlled nor monitored, that it involves large volumes, and that networks of shell collectors, traders, middlemen and exporters span the globe. This impedes protection of these species on the ground and calls into question the effectiveness of protected species management in Indonesia; solutions are unlikely to be found only in Indonesia and must involve the cooperation of importing countries.

Lorisiform primates (Primates: Strepsirrhini: Lorisiformes) represent almost 10% of the living primate species and are widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa and South/South-East Asia; however, their taxonomy, evolutionary history, and biogeography are still poorly understood. In this study we report the largest molecular phylogeny in terms of the number of represented taxa. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene for 86 lorisiform specimens, including ∼80% of all the species currently recognized. Our results support the monophyly of the Galagidae, but a common ancestry of the Lorisinae and Perodicticinae (family Lorisidae) was not recovered. These three lineages have early origins, with the Galagidae and the Lorisinae diverging in the Oligocene at about 30 Mya and the Perodicticinae emerging in the early Miocene. Our mitochondrial phylogeny agrees with recent studies based on nuclear data, and supports Euoticus as the oldest galagid lineage and the polyphyletic status of Galagoides . Moreover, we have elucidated phylogenetic relationships for several species never included before in a molecular phylogeny. The results obtained in this study suggest that lorisiform diversity remains substantially underestimated and that previously unnoticed cryptic diversity might be present within many lineages, thus urgently requiring a comprehensive taxonomic revision of this primate group. , (© 2015 The Linnean Society of London.)

Asian slow lorises are found in zoos and rescue centres worldwide with Nycticebus pygmaeus, the pygmy slow loris, boasting the largest population in captivity. Diet are reportedly high in fruit and concentrates and low in insects and exudates. Wild feeding studies place insects, nectar, and gums as the most important diet components. Captive populations also show high incidences of health afflictions, many of which may be caused by nutrition. Our study, aims at identifying a causative agent within the diets of N. pygmaeus in regards to diseases prominent within captive populations. We sent out 55 diet and health questionnaires to institutions worldwide. Returned diets were nutritionally analyzed. Nutrient values and proportions of each ingredient were used in a principle components analysis. Resulting factors were used as variables in a binary logistic regression (BLR), with dental disease as the dependent variable. 39 questionnaires were returned with a total of 47 diets. 20 (51.7%) institutions reported the presence of diseases with dental issues being prominent. Factors that were significant in the principle components analysis included gum, nectar, protein, acid detergent fibre, calcium, ash, phosphorus, potassium, Ca:P, magnesium, vitamin D, and energy. Gum was the only significant predictor in the BLR. Lastly, a chi square test for association was performed with the presence of dental disease as the dependent variable and the amount of fruit in the diet. The combination of high fruits and little to no gum promotes the occurrence of dental diseases. Current captive diets do not reflect the evolutionary adaptations of Nycticebus primates., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: Testis size is an indirect indicator of a species' mating system, along with sexual size and canine dimorphism, existence and usage of mating and advertisement calls as well as the spatial distribution of males and females ready to mate in solitary species. Upon its recent discovery, the northern giant mouse lemur Mirza zaza was suggested to have a polygynandrous mating system and to exhibit seasonal breeding. We tested these predictions in a field study in Sahamalaza National Park, NW Madagascar., Materials and Methods: We caught 12 M. zaza, before and during the suggested mating period and obtained standard field morphometric measurements, including testes size., Results: We show that M. zaza has the highest relative testis volume among primates, indicating strong sperm competition and polygynandrous mating. In addition, based on inferred age of captured animals, observed mating behavior, a female caught in met-estrus and data from captivity, we suggest M. zaza to be one of the few lemurs that breed aseasonally., Discussion: Future field work on this endangered species is required to illuminate the causes and consequences of intense promiscuity and aseasonal breeding despite strong habitat seasonality, which distinguish M. zaza from most other nocturnal lemurs., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Data on in-situ diet and nutritional requirements should inform the provision of food to captive insectivorous primates. Despite the growing availability of such information an over-reliance on commercially available primate foods and fruit continues in many captive establishments. Wild slender lorises are almost exclusively insectivorous, yet captive conspecifics are fed a primarily frugivorous diet that is likely to contribute to behavioral and health problems. We investigated the effect of naturalizing diet in the Northern Ceylon grey slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus nordicus) by providing live insect prey to a captive group of five individuals. We calculated activity budgets in accordance with six established categories and recorded positional behaviors. We collected data over 30 hours for each of three conditions: pre-enrichment, enrichment, post-enrichment. We hypothesized that increased opportunity for the display of natural behaviors would be stimulated by the dietary enrichment of live insects and made the following predictions; 1) Percentage time spent foraging would increase and time spent inactive would decrease; 2) behavioral repertoires would increase; 3) foraging patterns would be more constant over time with reduced feeding-time peaks. We analyzed time budget and behavioral changes using Friedman tests. We found significant changes in activity budgets with inactivity reduced and foraging levels increased to levels seen in wild slender lorises. We found a significant increase in postures used in foraging and a wider behavioral repertoire. We discuss the benefits of providing free-ranging live food in relation to enhancing the temporal-spatial distribution of food acquisition, satisfying nutritional requirements, balancing energy intake, and expenditure, expanding sensory stimulation, and promoting behavioral competence. We discuss our findings in relation to other insectivorous primates., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Venom delivery systems (VDS) are common in the animal kingdom, but rare amongst mammals. New definitions of venom allow us to reconsider its diversity amongst mammals by reviewing the VDS of Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla, Monotremata, and Primates. All orders use modified anterior dentition as the venom delivery apparatus, except Monotremata, which possesses a crural system. The venom gland in most taxa is a modified submaxillary salivary gland. In Primates, the saliva is activated when combined with brachial gland exudate. In Monotremata, the crural spur contains the venom duct. Venom functions include feeding, intraspecific competition, anti-predator defense and parasite defense. Including mammals in discussion of venom evolution could prove vital in our understanding protein functioning in mammals and provide a new avenue for biomedical and therapeutic applications and drug discovery.

The venom produced by slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) is toxic both intra- and inter-specifically. In this study we assessed the ecoparasite repellent properties of their venom. We tested venom from two Indonesian slow loris species: Nycticebus javanicus and Nycticebus coucang. Arthropods directly exposed to brachial gland secretions mixed with saliva from both species were immediately impaired or exhibited reduced activity (76%), and often died as a result (61%). We found no significant difference in the result of 60-min trials between N. coucang and N. javanicus [X(2)(1, n = 140) = 2.110, p = 0.3482]. We found evidence that the degree of lethality of the venom varies according to the arthropod taxa to which it is exposed. While most maggots (84%) were initially impaired from the venom after 10 min, maggots died after a 1 h trial 42% of the time. In contrast, at the end of 1 h trial, spiders died 78% of the time. For all arthropods, the average time to death from exposure was less than 25 min (M = 24.40, SD = 22.60). Ectoparasites including ticks, members of the arachnid order, are known to transmit pathogens to hosts and may be an intended target of the toxic secretions. Our results suggest that one function of slow loris venom is to repel parasites that affect their fitness, and that their topical anointing behaviour may be an adaptive response to ectoparasites., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Flagship species are traditionally large, charismatic animals used to rally conservation efforts. Accepted flagship definitions suggest they need only fulfil a strategic role, unlike umbrella species that are used to shelter cohabitant taxa. The criteria used to select both flagship and umbrella species may not stand up in the face of dramatic forest loss, where remaining fragments may only contain species that do not suit either set of criteria. The Cinderella species concept covers aesthetically pleasing and overlooked species that fulfil the criteria of flagships or umbrellas. Such species are also more likely to occur in fragmented habitats. We tested Cinderella criteria on mammals in the fragmented forests of the Sri Lankan Wet Zone. We selected taxa that fulfilled both strategic and ecological roles. We created a shortlist of ten species, and from a survey of local perceptions highlighted two finalists. We tested these for umbrella characteristics against the original shortlist, utilizing Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modelling, and analysed distribution overlap using ArcGIS. The criteria highlighted Loris tardigradus tardigradus and Prionailurus viverrinus as finalists, with the former having highest flagship potential. We suggest Cinderella species can be effective conservation surrogates especially in habitats where traditional flagship species have been extirpated.

Videos, memes and images of pet slow lorises have become increasingly popular on the Internet. Although some video sites allow viewers to tag material as 'animal cruelty', no site has yet acknowledged the presence of cruelty in slow loris videos. We examined 100 online videos to assess whether they violated the 'five freedoms' of animal welfare and whether presence or absence of these conditions contributed to the number of thumbs up and views received by the videos. We found that all 100 videos showed at least 1 condition known as negative for lorises, indicating absence of the necessary freedom; 4% showed only 1 condition, but in nearly one third (31.3%) all 5 chosen criteria were present, including human contact (57%), daylight (87%), signs of stress/ill health (53%), unnatural environment (91%) and isolation from conspecifics (77%). The public were more likely to like videos where a slow loris was kept in the light or displayed signs of stress. Recent work on primates has shown that imagery of primates in a human context can cause viewers to perceive them as less threatened. Prevalence of a positive public opinion of such videos is a real threat towards awareness of the conservation crisis faced by slow lorises., (© 2016 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Asia's slow and slender lorises (Nycticebus and Loris) are among nature's most extreme primates. Until recently, it was not understood why lorises have such huge forward-facing eyes, strange steady climbing locomotion, tiny dependent babies, and a bite that potentially can kill a human! Indeed, early studies described them as slow, solitary, and boring. Twenty years of field research now indicate that lorises are among the most intriguing mammal species., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

All documented orang-utan-loris interactions have been from Sumatra, where lorises were opportunistically preyed upon by orang-utans. In this paper, we describe two accounts of the Bornean orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) interacting with the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis). The interactions were by two adolescent female orang-utans. No attempts to catch the loris were observed on either occasion. Neither interaction was hostile. During the second observation, which was more detailed, we considered the behaviour to be play rather than aggression or attempted predation. Based upon the lack of interest from the adult females during these rare encounters, we propose that the behaviour represents play or non-aggressive exploration rather than predation.

Few primate species are known to excavate plant sources to procure exudates and other foods via active gouging. It is now apparent that slow lorises belong to this rare guild of obligate exudativorous primates. We investigate the diet of the pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) in a mixed deciduous forest in the Seima Protection Forest, Eastern Cambodia, and attempted to determine the importance of this resource in their diet. Feeding behaviors of six females and seven males were observed using radio-tracking to facilitate follows, and nine fecal samples were collected in February-May and January-March in 2008 and 2009 respectively. We observed 168 feeding bouts, during which the animals ate exudates (76); fruits (33); arthropods (27); flower parts (21); fungi (3); parts of bamboo culms (7); and reptiles (1). We filmed 19 bouts of exudativory, and observed animals consuming exudates in an orthograde posture, or standing quadrupedally over the exudate source. Pygmy lorises also gouged bamboo to collect lichen and fungi, or broke open dead culms to access invertebrates. Feeding occurred on terminal tree branches (24), tree trunks (21), bamboo (13), the middle of branches (7), and the undergrowth (1). The fecal samples contained plant parts, small-sized arthropods (primarily Coleoptera and Lepidoptera), reptile scales, animal bones, and animal hairs. Pygmy slow lorises are morphologically specialized for processing and digesting exudates, displaying small body sizes, specialized dentitions, elongated, and narrow tongues, large caecums, short duodenums, expanded volar pads, and modified hindlimbs. These features, combined with the prevalence of exudates in their diet across seasons, and ill health when exudates are missing from their diet in captivity, points to this species being an obligate exudativore., (© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Only seven types of mammals are known to be venomous, including slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.). Despite the evolutionary significance of this unique adaptation amongst Nycticebus, the structure and function of slow loris venom is only just beginning to be understood. Here we review what is known about the chemical structure of slow loris venom. Research on a handful of captive samples from three of eight slow loris species reveals that the protein within slow loris venom resembles the disulphide-bridged heterodimeric structure of Fel-d1, more commonly known as cat allergen. In a comparison of N. pygmaeus and N. coucang, 212 and 68 compounds were found, respectively. Venom is activated by combining the oil from the brachial arm gland with saliva, and can cause death in small mammals and anaphylactic shock and death in humans. We examine four hypotheses for the function of slow loris venom. The least evidence is found for the hypothesis that loris venom evolved to kill prey. Although the venom's primary function in nature seems to be as a defense against parasites and conspecifics, it may also serve to thwart olfactory-orientated predators. Combined with numerous other serpentine features of slow lorises, including extra vertebra in the spine leading to snake-like movement, serpentine aggressive vocalisations, a long dark dorsal stripe and the venom itself, we propose that venom may have evolved to mimic cobras (Naja sp.). During the Miocene when both slow lorises and cobras migrated throughout Southeast Asia, the evolution of venom may have been an adaptive strategy against predators used by slow lorises as a form of Müllerian mimicry with spectacled cobras.

Species misidentification often occurs when dealing with co-existing and morphologically similar species such as macaques, making the study of their ecology challenging. To overcome this issue, we use reliable occurrence data from camera-trap images and transect survey data to model their respective ecological niche and potential distribution locally in Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area (NNT NPA), central-Eastern Laos. We investigate niche differentiation of morphologically similar species using four sympatric macaque species in NNT NPA, as our model species: rhesus Macaca mulatta (Taxonomic Serial Number, TSN 180099), Northern pig-tailed M. leonina (TSN not listed); Assamese M. assamensis (TSN 573018) and stump-tailed M. arctoides (TSN 573017). We examine the implications for their conservation. We obtained occurrence data of macaque species from systematic 2006-2011 camera-trapping surveys and 2011-2012 transect surveys and model their niche and potential distribution with MaxEnt software using 25 environmental and topographic variables. The respective suitable habitat predicted for each species reveals niche segregation between the four species with a gradual geographical distribution following an environmental gradient within the study area. Camera-trapping positioned at many locations can increase elusive-species records with a relatively reduced and more systematic sampling effort and provide reliable species occurrence data. These can be used for environmental niche modelling to study niche segregation of morphologically similar species in areas where their distribution remains uncertain. Examining unresolved species' niches and potential distributions can have crucial implications for future research and species' management and conservation even in the most remote regions and for the least-known species.

More species of nocturnal primates are now recognized than in the past, because many are cryptic species. Subtle morphological disparities, such as pelage pattern and color variation, vocal cues, and genetics have aided in elucidating the number of diagnosable species in a genus. The slow lorises (genus Nycticebus) once included only two species, but recent taxonomic studies resulted in the description of three additional species; further incompletely explored variability characterizes each of the currently described species. The Bornean loris in particular is characterized by pelage and body size variation. In this study, we explored facemask variation in the Bornean loris (N. menagensis). Differing facemask patterns, particularly influenced by the amount of white on the face, significantly clustered together by geographic regions, separated by notable geographic boundaries. Our results support the recognition of four species of Bornean lorises: N. menagensis, N. bancanus, N. borneanus, and N. kayan. Genetic studies are required to support these findings and to refine further our understanding of the marked variability within the Bornean loris populations., (© 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

The effect of moonlight and temperature on activity of slow lorises was previously little known and this knowledge might be useful for understanding many aspects of their behavioural ecology, and developing strategies to monitor and protect populations. In this study we aimed to determine if the activity of the pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) is affected by ambient temperature and/or moonlight in a mixed deciduous forest. We radio-collared five females and five males in the Seima Protection Forest, Cambodia, in February to May, 2008 and January to March, 2009 and recorded their behaviour at 5 minutes intervals, totalling 2736 observations. We classified each observation as either inactive (sleeping or alert) or active behaviour (travel, feeding, grooming, or others). Moon luminosity (bright/dark) and ambient temperature were recorded for each observation. The response variable, activity, was binary (active or inactive), and a logit link function was used. Ambient temperature alone did not significantly affect mean activity. Although mean activity was significantly affected by moonlight, the interaction between moonlight and temperature was also significant: on bright nights, studied animals were increasingly more active with higher temperature; and on dark nights they were consistently active regardless of temperature. The most plausible explanation is that on bright cold nights the combined risk of being seen and attacked by predators and heat loss outweigh the benefit of active behaviours.

Linking predator avoidance and social organisation predicts that large groups are favoured under heavy predation pressure but that small, inconspicuous groups may do equally well by avoiding detection altogether. We explored the relationships between antipredator behaviour (vocalisation, concealment, fleeing), detectability (colouration, group size) and social organisation in arboreal langurs. Three clear antipredation conditions emerged: (1) exemplified by Presbytis melalophos--brightly-coloured species (red, yellow) with contrasting colours, living in large unimale-multifemale groups (>10 individuals), that vocalised frequently and that flee loudly through the canopy; (2) exemplified by P. comata--greyish species (some contrasting colours), living in intermediate, unimale-multifemale or 1-male-1-female groups (approx. 7 individuals), that vocalise infrequently and that flee through the middle forest layers; (3) exemplified by P. frontata--dull-coloured species without contrast, living in small unimale-multifemale or 1-male-1-female groups (<5 individuals), that may freeze upon detection, and that may vocalise mainly during the night. Crypsis as an antipredator strategy is restricted to taxa that occur in 1-male-1-female groups. This wide range of antipredator strategies within a monophyletic taxon living in the same general area with a similar suite of predators facing similar predator pressures appears to be unique among the order Primates., (Copyright © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Tarsiers (Tarsius) and slow lorises (Nycticebus) are the only extant nocturnal primates occurring in Southeast Asia. Harcourt (1999) hypothesized that in insular Southeast Asia, slow lorises and tarsiers showed a checkerboard distribution on 12 small (<12,000 km(2)) islands, i.e., only one or the other occurs, and attributed this to extreme levels of competition between these 2 largely faunivorous primates. Further, he predicted slow lorises were able to persist on smaller islands than tarsiers. We re-evaluated these findings using an expanded dataset including 49 islands where tarsiers or slow lorises occur. Tarsiers and slow lorises live on islands of similar size (median size of ca. 300-900 km(2)), and both taxa inhabit an equal proportion of small, medium, and large islands. On small islands within their area of sympatry tarsiers occur on 1 island, slow lorises on 8, both genera on 3, and we can assume they have become extinct from 11 small islands since the Last Glacial Maximum. Sizes of islands where tarsiers or slow lorises have become extinct do not differ from islands where they are still extant. We show that slow lorises occur on more islands in insular Southeast Asia than perhaps previously assumed, but these islands are not smaller on average than islands where tarsiers occur. A checkerboard distribution between these taxa is not evident. More studies are needed at the macroecological level to assess the importance of biogeographic history in explaining their present-day distribution patterns.

Illegal and unsustainable trade in wildlife is a major conservation challenge. For Asian primates, economic and cultural traditions, and increased forest access mean that trade may have become detrimental for certain species. Slow and slender lorises (Nycticebus and Loris) are primates particularly prevalent in trade, determined until now by focused counts of lorises in regional markets. Here, we use international trade statistics and a participant-observer approach to assess culturally specific drivers for trade in lorises in South and Southeast Asia, to provide a broader context to help mitigate this practice. Analysis of international records for the last 30 years revealed that live animal trade was more prevalent than trade in body parts (slow lorises, 86.4%; slender lorises, 91.4%), with Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand the largest exporters. We then examine drivers of international and domestic trade based on long-term data from 1994-2009 in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Indonesia. We show that slender lorises are important in Sri Lankan folklore, but their use as pets and for traditional medicine is rare. Trade in Bengal slow and pygmy lorises in Cambodia for use in traditional medicines, a practice with deeply historical roots, is widespread. Despite its own set of myths about the magical and curative properties of lorises, trade in Javan, Bornean, and greater slow lorises in Indonesia is largely for pets. Conservation practices in Asia are often generalized and linked with the region's major religions and economies. We show here that, in the case of wildlife trade, culturally specific patterns are evident among different ethnic groups, even within a country. Revealing such patterns is the foundation for developing conservation management plans for each species. We suggest some participatory methods for each country that may aid in this process., (2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

The resolution of the ambiguity surrounding the taxonomy of Aotus means data on newly classified species are urgently needed for conservation efforts. We conducted a study on the Panamanian owl monkey (Aotus zonalis) between May and July 2008 at three localities in Chagres National Park, located east of the Panama Canal, using the line transect method to quantify abundance and distribution. Vegetation surveys were also conducted to provide a baseline quantification of the three habitat types. We observed 33 individuals within 16 groups in two out of the three sites. Population density was highest in Campo Chagres with 19.7 individuals/km(2) and intermediate densities of 14.3 individuals/km(2) were observed at Cerro Azul. In la Llana A. zonalis was not found to be present. The presence of A. zonalis in Chagres National Park, albeit at seemingly low abundance, is encouraging. A longer-term study will be necessary to validate the further abundance estimates gained in this pilot study in order to make conservation policy decisions.

The unique slow-climbing quadrupedalism of Asian lorises has been the subject of numerous studies; however, qualitative observations of more rapid locomotion have occasionally been reported. Field studies of the red slender loris have revealed the habitual use of unexpectedly high-speed locomotion by the so-called "sloth of the primate world." Novel video footage permitted the first quantitative kinematic analysis of rapid quadrupedalism in wild lorises. Observations revealed that this previously unexplored behavior is far from infrequent, with 26% of red slender loris locomotor activity being dedicated to high-velocity arboreal quadrupedalism. This locomotor pattern may represent a primitive retention of the rapid, scrambling quadrupedalism that is observed in other strepsirhines, or it may constitute a more recent specialization of this smallest loris taxon.

Despite the persistent use of the word "solitary" to describe nocturnal primate social behavior, increasing numbers of studies are revealing sophisticated levels of social interactions among nocturnal primates. This study explores the relationships among 11 adult Mysore slender lorises (Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus) studied over 10(1/2) months in Tamil Nadu, India. When all observations regarding dependent offspring are excluded, the animals spent on average 38% of their activity in various forms of neutral, affiliative, and agonistic behaviors. Affiliative behaviors were the most common type of social interaction, and males in general were more social than females. Low values for Cole's index (CI) of association emphasize that females rarely interacted with same-sex conspecifics, but commonly interacted with males. In turn, males also formed strong affiliative relationships with other adult males. This index also indicates that levels of affiliation are strongest among animals that share sleeping sites. The Hinde index (HI) suggests that males control proximity to females more than the reverse. A female's tolerance of multiple males in her home range and at a sleeping site may be related to high spatial variability of food resources. Such resources may constrain females with costly reproductive strategies (up to two sets of twins per annum) to a small home range. With their larger home ranges, males may be able to monopolize females by initiating social interactions, and also provide a benefit to females by contributing to parental care., ((c) 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Few data are available on gibbon populations in peat-swamp forest. In order to assess the importance of this habitat for gibbon conservation, a population of Hylobates agilis albibarbis was surveyed in the Sabangau peat-swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. This is an area of about 5,500 km(2) of selectively logged peat-swamp forest, which was formally gazetted as a national park during 2005. The study was conducted during June and July 2004 using auditory sampling methods. Five sample areas were selected and each was surveyed for four consecutive days by three teams of researchers at designated listening posts. Researchers recorded compass bearings of, and estimated distances to, singing groups. Nineteen groups were located. Population density is estimated to be 2.16 (+/-0.46) groups/km(2). Sightings occurring either at the listening posts or that were obtained by tracking in on calling groups yielded a mean group size of 3.4 individuals, hence individual gibbon density is estimated to be 7.4 (+/-1.59) individuals/km(2). The density estimates fall at the mid-range of those calculated for other gibbon populations, thus suggesting that peat-swamp forest is an important habitat for gibbon conservation in Borneo. A tentative extrapolation of results suggests a potential gibbon population size of 19,000 individuals within the mixed-swamp forest habitat sub-type in the Sabangau. This represents one of the largest remaining continuous populations of Bornean agile gibbons. The designation of the Sabangau forest as a national park will hopefully address the problem of illegal logging and hunting in the region. Further studies should note any difference in gibbon density post protection.

This paper examines the importance of vision in the lives of nocturnal primates in comparison to diurnal and cathemeral species. Vision is the major sense in all primates and there is evidence that the eyesight of nocturnal species is more acute and variable than has previously been recognized. Case studies of the behaviour of a galago and a loris in open woodland habitats in relation to ambient light show that Galago moholi males are more likely to travel between clumps of vegetation along the ground when the moon is up, and during periods of twilight, whereas they retreat to more continuous vegetation and travel less when the moon sets. This is interpreted as a strategy for avoiding predators that hunt on the ground when it is dark. The travel distances of Loris lydekkerianus are not affected by moonlight but this species reduces its choice of food items from more mobile prey to mainly ants when the moon sets, indicating the importance of light when searching for high-energy supplements to its staple diet. Evidence is presented for the first time to indicate key aspects of nocturnal vision that would benefit from further research. It is suggested that the light and dark facial markings of many species convey information about species and individual identity when animals approach each other at night. Differences in the colour of the reflective eye-shine, and behavioural responses displayed when exposed to white torchlight, point to different kinds of nocturnal vision that are suited to each niche, including the possibility of some degree of colour discrimination. The ability of even specialist nocturnal species to see well in broad daylight demonstrates an inherent flexibility that would enable movement into diurnal niches. The major differences in the sensitivity and perceptual anatomy of diurnal lemurs compared to diurnal anthropoids, and the emergence of cathemerality in lemurs, is interpreted as a reflection of evolution from different ancestral stocks in very different ecosystems, and not a recent shift towards diurnality due to human disturbance., (Copyright (c) 2006 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Members of the Order Primates are characterised by a wide overlap of visual fields or optic convergence. It has been proposed that exploitation of either insects or angiosperm products in the terminal branches of trees, and the corresponding complex, three-dimensional environment associated with these foraging strategies, account for visual convergence. Although slender lorises (Loris sp.) are the most visually convergent of all the primates, very little is known about their feeding ecology. This study, carried out over 10 (1/2) months in South India, examines the feeding behaviour of L. lydekkerianus lydekkerianus in relation to hypotheses regarding visual predation of insects. Of 1238 feeding observations, 96% were of animal prey. Lorises showed an equal and overwhelming preference for terminal and middle branch feeding, using the undergrowth and trunk rarely. The type of prey caught on terminal branches (Lepidoptera, Odonata, Homoptera) differed significantly from those caught on middle branches (Hymenoptera, Coleoptera). A two-handed catch accompanied by bipedal postures was used almost exclusively on terminal branches where mobile prey was caught, whereas the more common capture technique of one-handed grab was used more often on sturdy middle branches to obtain slow moving prey. Although prey was detected with senses other than vision, vision was the key sense used upon the final strike. This study strongly supports the notion that hunting for animal prey was a key ecological determinant in selecting for visual convergence early on in primate evolution. The extreme specialisations of slender lorises, however, suggest that early primates were not dedicated faunivores and lend further support to the emerging view that both insects and fruits were probably important components of the diet of basal primates, and that exploitation of fruits may account for other key primate traits.