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The role of diffraction methods for the solid-state sciences has been pivotal to determining the (micro)structure of a material. Particularly, the expanding activities in materials science have led to the development of new methods for analysis by diffraction. This book offers an authoritative overview of the new developments in the field of analysis of matter by (in particular X-ray, electron and neutron) diffraction. It is composed of chapters written by leading experts on'modern diffraction methods'. The focus in the various chapters of this book is on the current forefront of research on and applications for diffraction methods. This unique book provides descriptions of the'state of the art'and, at the same time, identifies avenues for future research. The book assumes only a basic knowledge of solid-state physics and allows the application of the described methods by the readers of the book (either graduate students or mature scientists).

The neutron beam has been applied extensively in scientific studies and in industrial fields. Studies on neutron diffraction have been promoted for many materials, especially composite materials and light-element materials. In this book, the authors present topical research in the study of the principles, instrumentation and application of neutron diffraction. Topics discussed include neutron diffraction measurements for materials science; neutron diffraction studies of the isotopic effect in arrangement of hydrogen atoms in solid solutions of Ti-N-H, Ti-N-D and Ti-N-H-D systems; a study on the residual strain induced by thermal hysteresis in a composite material; and neutron diffractometers for fatigue study of engineering metals.

Detennination of the magnetic structure of magnetic materials is a fundamental problem that can be solved by magnetic neutron diffraction techniques. By magnetic structures we refer to the mutual alignment of the magnetic moments of the atoms in a crystal and their overall alignment relative to the crystallographic axes. Some indirect, tentative data on the magnetic structure of magnetic materials can be obtained from research on their magnetic, mechanical, thermal, and other properties. But only neutron diffraction is a unique direct method of detennining the magnetic structure of a crystal. The magnetic structure of more than one thousand crystals with magnetic order has been studied during 30 years of neutron diffraction research made on reactors in a large number of laboratories in the world. The results of this research work are extensively described in the handbook Magnetic Structures Determined by Neutron Diffraction [176]; in the present book, we will often refer to this handbook. The first extensive theoretical generalization of the principles of magnetic neutron diffraction and the results of research on magnetic structures appeared in the book by Yu. A. Izyumov and R. P. Ozerov Magnetic Neutron Diffraction [24, 134].

Mikhail Alexandrovich Krivoglaz died unexpectedly when he was preparing the English edition of his two-volume monograph on diffraction and diffuse scatter­ ing of X-rays and neutrons in imperfect crystals. His death was a heavy blow to all who knew him, who had worked with him and to the world science community as a whole. The application of the diffraction techniques for the study of imperfections of crystal structures was the major field of Krivoglaz'work throughout his career in science. He started working in the field in the mid-fifties and since then made fundamental contributions to the theory of real crystals. His results have largely determined the current level of knowledge in this field for more than thirty years. Until the very last days of his life, Krivoglaz continued active studies in the physics of diffraction effects in real crystals. His interest in the theory aided in the explanation of the rapidly advancing experimental studies. The milestones marking important stages of his work were the first mono­ graph on the theory of X-ray and neutron scattering in real crystals which was published in Russian in 1967 (a revised English edition in 1969), and the two­ volume monograph published in Russian in 1983-84 (this edition is the revised translation of the latter).

The inter action between the magnetic field generated by the neutron and the magnetic moment of atoms containing unpaired electrons was experimentally demonstrated for the first time about twenty years ago. The basic theory describing such an in­ teraction had already been developed and the first nuclear reactors with large available thermal neutron fluxes had recently been con­ structed. The power of the magnetic neutron interaction for in­ vestigating the structure of magnetic materials was immediately recognized and put to use where possible. Neutron diffraction, however, was practicable only in countries with nuclear reactors. The earliest neutron determinations of magnetic ordering were hence primarily carried out at Oak Ridge and Brookhaven in the US, at Chalk River in Canada and at Harwell in England. Diffraction patterns from polycrystalline ferromagnets and antiferromagnets are interpretable if produced by simple spin arrays. More complex magnetic scattering patterns could often be unravelled, in terms of a three-dimensional array of atomic moments, if the specimen studied is a single crystal. The devel­ opment of sophisticated cryogenic equipment, with independently alignable magnetic fields, opened the way to greater complexity in the magnetic structures that could be successfully determined, as did also the introduction of polarized neutron beams. By the end of the'sixties, many countries were contributing significantly to neutron diffraction studies of a wide variety of magnetic materials.

This is one of the first books dedicated to the emerging field of neutron protein crystallography (NPC). The text covers all of the practical aspects of NPC, from the basic background of neutron scattering and diffraction, to the technical details of neutron facilities, growth of high-quality crystals, and data analysis. The final chapter is devoted to providing many examples of using NPC to investigate a wide range of different proteins. It demonstrates how NPC can explore hydrogen bonds, protonation and deprotonation of amino acid residues, hydration structures, and hydrogen-to-deuterium exchange ratios. To avoid redundancy with other textbooks on X-ray protein crystallography (XPC), this book assumes a familiarity with the basics of XPC and strives to highlight and explain the differences between XPC and NPC. It is therefore especially useful for X-ray protein crystallographers who are eager to have a sound, scientific basis for judging if NPC is the right technique for furthering their experimental programs.

Neutron Applications in Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences offers a comprehensive overview of the wide ranging applications of neutron scattering techniques to elucidate the fundamental materials properties at the nano-, micro- and meso-scale, which underpin research in the related fields of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences. Introductions to neutron scattering fundamentals and instrumentation are paired with a thorough review of the applications to a large variety of scientific and technological problems, written through the direct experience of leading scientists in each field. Tailored to a wide audience, this volume provides the novice with an inspiring introduction and stimulates the expert to consider these non-conventional problem solving techniques in his/her field of interest. Earth and environmental scientists, engineers, researchers and graduate students involved with materials science will find Neutron Applications in Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences a valuable ready-to-use reference.

This is the first book covering the theory, practicalities, and the extensive applications of neutron powder diffraction in materials science, physics, chemistry, mineralogy and engineering. Various highlight applications of neutron powder diffraction are outlined in the introduction, then the theory is developed and instrumentation described sufficient for a return to the applications. The book covers the use of neutron powder diffraction in the solution (hard) and refinement (more straightforward) of crystal and magnetic structures, applications of powder diffraction in quantitative phase analysis, extraction of microstructural information from powder diffraction patterns, and the applications of neutron diffraction in studies of elastic properties and for the measurement of residual stress. Additional theory to underpin these various applications is developed as required. Much of the material should be accessible to senior undergraduates in science and engineering, as well as to graduate students and more senior researchers with an interest in the technique.

Volume 63 of Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry provides an introduction for those not yet familiar with neutrons by describing basic features of neutrons and their interaction with matter as well illustrating important applications. The volume is divided into 17 Chapters. The first two chapters introduce properties of neutrons and neutron facilities, setting the stage for applications. Some applications rely on single crystals (Chapter 3) but mostly powders (Chapters 4-5) and bulk polycrystals (Chapters 15-16) are analyzed, at ambient conditions as well as low and high temperature and high pressure (Chapters 7-9). Characterization of magnetic structures remains a core application of neutron scattering (Chapter 6). The analysis of neutron data is not trivial and crystallographic methods have been modified to take account of the complexities, such as the Rietveld technique (Chapter 4) and the pair distribution function (Chapter 11). Information is not only obtained about solids but about liquids, melts and aqueous solutions as well (Chapters 11-13). In fact this field, approached with inelastic scattering (Chapter 10) and small angle scattering (Chapter 13) is opening unprecedented opportunities for earth sciences. Small angle scattering also contributes information about microstructures (Chapter 14). Neutron diffraction has become a favorite method to quantify residual stresses in deformed materials (Chapter 16) as well as preferred orientation patterns (Chapter 15). The volume concludes with a short introduction into neutron tomography and radiography that may well emerge as a principal application of neutron scattering in the future (Chapter 17).

X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction describes the developments of the X-ray and the various research done in neutron diffraction. Part I of the book concerns the principles and applications of the X-ray and neutrons through their origins from classical crystallography. The book explains the use of diffraction methods to show the highly regular arrangement of atoms that forms a continuous pattern in three-dimensional space. The text evaluates the limitations and benefits of using the different types of radiation sources, whether these are X-rays, neutrons, or electrons. Part II is a collection of reprints discussing the development of techniques that includes a modification of the Bragg method, which is a method of X-ray crystal analysis. One paper presents an improved numerical method of two-dimensional Fourier synthesis for crystals. This method uses a greatly reduced process of arrangement of sets of figures found in the two-dimensional Fourier series. The book also notes the theoretical considerations and the practical details, and then addresses precautions against possible inclusions of errors in this method. The text deals as well with the magnetic scattering of neutrons, and one paper presents a simple method of gathering information about the magnetic moment of the neutron besides the traditional Stern-Gerlach method. Nuclear scientists and physicists, atomic researchers, and nuclear engineers will greatly appreciate the book.

Advances in Structure Research by Diffraction Methods: Volume 5 presents discussions on application of diffraction methods in structure research. The book provides the aspects of structure research using various diffraction methods. The text contains 2 chapters. Chapter 1 reviews the general theory and experimental methods used in the study of all types of amorphous solid, by both X-ray and neutron diffraction, and the detailed bibliography of work on inorganic glasses. The second chapter discusses electron diffraction, one of the major methods of determining the structures of molecules in the gas phase. Chemists and molecular physicists will find the book a great source of information.

This book presents the recent theoretical and experimental developments of neutron scattering by ferroelectrics. A Model description of lattice dynamics of structurally unstable crystals (self-consistent phonon approximation, pseudo-spin formalism, coherent potential approximation etc.) is formulated. The effects of nonlinear excitations and lattice defects in neutron scattering are also discussed.