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Life and death education is a distinct field of study that has potential practicality and life relevance for us to consider. For example, one notable inquiry pertaining to life education teaching entails appreciation and theoretical understanding of quality life functioning (e.g., a person's desire to attain spiritual wisdom vs. a person's desire to attain immense financial wealth). Our research undertakings recently involved the development of a blueprint or framework, which we termed as the 'Life + Death Education Framework'. This framework is intended to provide relevant information that may serve to assist educators, stakeholders, caregivers, etc. with their teaching practices of life and death education. We premise that to date, there is no clear consensus or agreement among educators as to what one is expected (e.g., specific learning outcome) to teach to students who wish to study and learn about life and death education (e.g., do we introduce to students the metaphysical lens about death?). Moreover, from our point of view, the Life + Death Education Framework may yield insightful guidelines and life-related benefits, such as the heightening of a person's well-being and/or his or her daily life functioning. As such, then, the focus of the present theoretical-conceptual article is for us to provide an in-depth narrative of the Life + Death Education Framework and how this framework, or potential universal blueprint, could help introduce and clarify our proposition of a life functioning-related concept known as 'self well-being'. Self well-being, for us, is an alternative nomenclature that may be used in place of subjective well-being., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Phan, Ngu, Hsu and Chen.)

Life and death education , as noted from the literatures, has been studied and researched extensively in China, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Our own research undertakings over the past several years, situated in different sociocultural settings have delved into aspects of life and death that could help advance theoretical understanding of the subject matters (e.g., does the meaning of "effective life functioning" connote differing interpretations for different cultural groups?). Situating within the framework of life and death education, we expand the study of trans-humanism by introducing an extended prefix or nomenclature known as "trans-mystical". Specifically, our philosophized concept of trans-mysticism considers a related concept, which we term as a "trans-mystical mindset". A trans-mystical mindset, differing from an ordinary mindset, from our philosophical rationalization, is defined as "a person's higher-order state of consciousness, espousing her perception, judgment, belief, and attempted interpretation of life and death phenomena that are mystifying and fall outside the ordinary boundaries of human psyche." Our focus of inquiry, as reported in the present article, seeks to advance our proposition: that a trans-mystical mindset, unlike an ordinary mindset, may help a person to rationalize, appreciate, and understand metaphysical contexts, mystical experiences, and the like. This focus, interestingly, serves to highlight an important discourse - namely, that there is a dichotomy in theoretical lenses (i.e., objective reality vs. individual subjectivity) that a person may use to rationalize the significance or non-significance of universal contexts, events, phenomena, etc. (e.g., a person's experience of "premonition"). As such, then, there is an important question that we seek to consider: whether philosophization, or the use of philosophical psychology, would yield perceived "scientific evidence" to support or to reject the study of metaphysicism, mysticism, and the like? For example, does our philosophization of an "equivalency" between a person's trans-mystical mindset and her experience of self-transcendence help to normalize and/or to scientize the subject matters of metaphysicism, mysticism, etc.?, Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Phan, Ngu, Hsu, Chen and Wu.)

Life and death education , also known as life education and death education , is an interesting subject that may coincide with the subject of lifespan development. In brief, from our theoretical perspective, which guides our teaching and curriculum development, life education considers personal understanding of life functioning on a daily basis, whereas death education explores matters that are related to death and dying. For example, how can a social worker utilize his life knowledge, or life wisdom, to assist a relative to understand the intricate nature of death? In a similar vein, how can a senior citizen use her personal experience of Buddhist meditation practice to overcome a minor Covid setback? Central to our teaching practice is the premise of 'active transformation' (i.e., transforming life knowledge into positive practice) and the premise of 'theoretical infusion' (e.g., the infusion of a distinctive epistemological belief in the teaching of life) that would, in turn, help to enhance and facilitate deep, meaningful understanding of life and death. The purpose of the present article is for us to discuss a proposition of a theoretical-conceptual model, which depicts the 'unification' or integration of three major viewpoints of life and death: the social viewpoint , the philosophical viewpoint , and the psychological viewpoint . We theorize that unification of the three theoretical viewpoints may help provide grounding for effective teaching and holistic understanding of the subject contents of life and death. Such discourse, importantly, may also assist to advance the scope and complexity of the lifespan development subject. Finally, in addition to our theoretical-conceptual model of life and death, we propose three major research inquiries for development: the meaning of situated mindset , the underlying nature of spiritual transcendence , and proposition of appropriate methodological accounts for usage. Overall, then, we purport that our conceptual analysis and discussion overview, based on philosophical reflection, may serve to stimulate interest, intellectual curiosity, scholarly dialog, etc., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Phan, Chen, Ngu and Hsu.)

The study of optimal best practice, coinciding with a person's 'motivational mindset', is an interesting research inquiry for development. Optimal best practice, in brief, relates to the maximization of a person's state of functioning (e.g., cognitive functioning). Moreover, the nature of optimal best practice is positive and motivational, helping individuals to flourish in different courses of action (e.g., academic performance at school). Several research undertakings, non-experimental in design, have provided clear and consistent evidence to substantiate the existing viewpoints and perspectives of optimal best practice. Our proposed investigation, which involved physical education pre-service teacher students from Spain (N = 681), explored one notable focus of inquiry-namely, the formation of optimal best practice and its predictive and explanatory account on future adaptive outcomes. As such, using Likert-scale measures and path analysis techniques, we were able to identify two associative patterns: achievement of optimal best practice is positively accounted for by academic self-concept, optimism, and current best practice and, in contrast, negatively accounted for by pessimism; and that optimal best practice could act as a determinant of academic engagement for effective learning. Such associations are significant, providing relevant information for different teaching and research purposes., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Granero-Gallegos et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

In educational settings, the notion of 'achieving optimal best' in a subject matter (e.g., an elementary school student's achievement in her Year 6 Science project) is relevant for educators to consider. Optimal best, or optimal functioning, reflects the proactivity, positivity, and motivation of a person. How does a student achieve optimal best in Calculus? Our extensive research of optimal best has recognized the potency of the process of human optimization , which may operate to explain a person's successful experience and achievement of optimal best. Recently, researchers have considered another theoretical concept, which is termed as 'goals of best practice' (i.e., abbreviated as 'GsBP'). Goals of best practice, in brief, are personal goals that a person may construct and set for a particular context. Specifically, however, a 'personal goal' may indicate and espouse a person's plan of intent to either remain on course without any desire or aspiration (i.e., 'goal of actual best', denoted as 'GAB') or, alternatively, to strive for maximization (i.e., 'goal of optimal best', denoted as 'GOB'). This article is theoretical and conceptual, reflecting the use of the paradigm of philosophical psychology to advance the study of the concept of GsBP. Specifically, we contend that our conceptual analysis of GsBP, entailing both GAB and GOB may provide a logical basis and rationale for the proposition of educational implications for consideration and inquiries for continuing research development., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2022 The Author(s).)

Studying worked examples impose relatively low cognitive load because learners' attention is directed to learn the schema, which is embedded in the worked examples. That schema encompasses both conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge. It is well-documented that worked examples are effective in facilitating the acquisition of problem-solving skills. However, the use of worked examples to develop problem-solving expertise is less known. Typically, experts demonstrate an efficient way to solve problems that is quicker, faster, and having fewer solution steps. We reviewed five studies to validate the benefit of worked examples to develop problem-solving expertise for word problems. Overall, a diagram portrays the problem structure, coupled with either study worked examples or complete multiple example-problem pairs, facilitates the formation of an equation to solve words problems efficiently. Hence, an in-depth understanding of conceptual knowledge (i.e., problem structure) might contribute to superior performance of procedural knowledge manifested in the reduced solution steps., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Ngu and Phan.)

The paradigm of positive psychology is significant in introducing positive psychological concepts such as "flourishing," "optimal best," and "a state of flow." In terms of research development of positive psychology, the researchers of this article have made extensive theoretical, empirical, and methodological contributions by advancing the study of optimal best. One aspect of this research, notably, consists of advancement of the psychological process of optimization . Optimization, in brief, provides a theoretical account into the "optimization" of a person's state of functioning. Non-academically, a Buddhist nun's seeking to successfully achieve an optimal state of enlightenment or, academically, a first-year student's seeking to achieve an A grade in Psych 101 would require some form of optimization. Recent research development has, interestingly, considered a related concept known as "goals of best practice" (GsBP), which may co-exist with the process of optimization and/or assist to account for the optimization of learning experiences. This conceptual analysis article, by utilizing the paradigm of philosophical psychology , advances the study of optimal best practice by focusing on three major aspects: (i) to consider conceptually and philosophically how and/or the extent to which GsBP could, in fact, relate to the nature of flow, flourishing, and optimal best; (ii) to consider a methodological account, which could help to measure and assess the concept GsBP; and (iii) to consider the potential practicality of GsBP in educational contexts, which may assist to facilitate and motivate the achievement of optimal best. These three aspects, we firmly believe, are of significance as they provide grounding for implementation and continuing research development into the area of best practice., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Phan and Ngu.)

Central to cognitive load theory is the concept of element interactivity, which reflects the complexity of material. The complexity of linear equations depends on the number of operational and relational lines and the nature of the operation (balance versus inverse) in the solution procedure. A relational line refers to the quantitative relation whereby the right-hand side of the equation equals to its left-hand side. An operational line refers to the application of an operation and such a procedural step preserves the equality of the linear equation. The balance method and inverse method differ in the operational line (e.g., + 3 on both sides vs.- 3 becomes + 3) where the inverse operation imposes half the level of element interactivity as the balance method. Seventy-five students randomly assigned to either the balance group or inverse group to complete (i) one-step equations (Experiment 1), (ii) two-step equations (Experiment 2), and (iii) one-step and two-step equations with a focus on equations with negative pronumerals (Experiment 3). Performance favoured the inverse group when the gap between the low and high element interactivity equations was substantial enough. Both groups performed better and invested lower mental effort on the inverse operation than the balance operation., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The paradigm of positive psychology, significant in nature, helps to explain the proactivity and motivation of human agency, such as a secondary school student's state of autonomy, confidence, and personal resolve to strive for optimal learning and/or non-learning experiences. Our recent research development, in tandem with other scholars' inquiries, has focused on one aspect of positive psychology-namely, a person's achievement of 'optimal best', which reflects the maximization of his/her state of functioning (e.g., cognitive functioning). Capitalizing on our previous research, we develop a psychological concept that we term as a 'perceived feeling of energy'. A perceived feeling of energy (e.g., a perceived feeling of liveliness) is proposed to act as a 'motivational engine', or as a central driver, which then could predict and enhance a person's achievement of optimal best. Six hundred and twenty-seven university students (N = 438 women, 189 men) responded to a suite of self-report questionnaires. Structural equation modelling (SEM) techniques were used to test a conceptual model, where we focused on the antecedent (i.e., the direct impact of self-efficacy on a perceived feeling of energy) and consequence of a perceived feeling energy (i.e., the impact of a perceived feeling of energy on personal resolve, and the sustaining of optimal best). Analysis of results showed support for our original hypothesized model-for example: self-efficacy as an antecedent of energy and the central role of the energy as a predictor and potential mediator of future outcomes., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

We tested a theoretical-conceptual model that introduced our recently developed psychological concept, termed as psychological processes , which is defined as "a person's continuing frame of mind to focus on disposition toward strong resolute, structured thoughts and organization, and aspiration to strive for educational success." This proposition is innovative as it considers the notion that a person's mindset is malleable and, importantly, subjects to social experiences derived from a situated social context. Moreover, from our definition, we contend that psychological processes, as a distinct construct, is "latent," or underlying, with three comparable psychological attributes: personal resolve, effective functioning, and personal striving. Our conceptualization, acknowledging the importance of social contexts and individualized experience and personal belief, proposed that perceived social experiences (i.e., positive versus negative), as a source of information, would shape a student's psychological processes, his/her state of motivation, and engagement in different types of adaptive outcomes. Moreover, from our point of view, psychological processes would act as a predictor as well as a potential mediator of motivation and engagement in different types of adaptive outcomes. In a similar vein, from the positive effect of psychological processes, motivation could act as a predictor as well as a mediator of adaptive outcomes. Structural equation modeling, from Taiwanese university students' ( N = 739) responses to various Likert-scale measures, showed support for our original a priori model - for example, the positive effects of perceived social experiences on psychological processes (β = 0.81, p < 0.001) motivation (β = 0.61, p < 0.001), and adaptive outcomes (β = 0.36, p < 0.01), and the positive effect of psychological processes on motivation (β = 0.31, p < 0.01). Interestingly, we also found some interesting findings with regard to the effects of measured indicators - for example, the positive effect of personal resolve, as a measured indicator, on adaptive outcomes (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), and the effect of self-efficacy, as a measured indicator, on academic liking experience, also a measured indicator (β = 0.12, p < 0.01). Overall, the results established have a wide range of implications for consideration - for example, the development of an educational program and/or instructional design that could promote and foster positive learning experiences., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Phan and Ngu.)

Possessing expert schemas is a positive feat that may yield different types of adaptive outcomes (e.g., informing procedural understanding that may result in a student skipping a few of the solution steps involved). Limited schemas, in contrast, may deter progress of a novice learner, limiting his/her capability to flourish. Taken as a whole, it may be concluded that expert schemas are more advantageous than novice schemas, differentiating learners in terms of expert and novice. Having said this, however, more recently, researchers have argued that possessing expert schemas could serve as deterrence. Recently, researchers have acknowledged a theoretical concept known as cognitive entrenchment , which is defined as a high level of stability in domain schemas. This description interestingly suggests that "entrenchment" or "situated fixation" of a course of action (e.g., a subject matter) could hinder the progress and learning experience of a person, namely-his/her inability and/or unwillingness to adapt to a new context, and/or his/her inflexibility and insistence to stay on course without any intent to change. One example of cognitive entrenchment is observed in professional football, wherein it has been argued that some football coaches are cognitively entrenched within their expert schemas, resulting in their demised game plans and strategic acumen. We advance the study of cognitive entrenchment by proposing an alternative viewpoint, which we term as the "perceived zone of certainty and uncertainty." This proposition counters the perspective of cognitive entrenchment by arguing that it is cognitive appraisal, judgment, mental resolute, and determination of a person in cognitive certainty of his/her success or failure, or the cognitive uncertainty of success or failure, that would explain the notion of inflexibility and/or unwillingness to adapt, and/or insistence to stay on course without any attempt to deviate. Moreover, we rationalize that certainty of success or failure would closely associate with a feeling of comfort, whereas uncertainty would associate with his/her feeling discomfort. In this analysis, we strongly believe that willingness to change and adapt, reluctance and insistence to remain on course, and/or inclination to embrace flexibility may not necessarily relate to the concept of cognitive entrenchment; rather, inflexibility and/or reluctance to change for the purpose of adaptation has more to do with the desire of a person to seek a state of comfort. Finally, our conceptual analysis of cognitive entrenchment also considers an interesting theoretical concept, which we termed as "perceived optimal efficiency." Perceived optimal efficiency, similar to cognitive relevance theory , is concerned with the relationship between minimum investment of time, effort, cognitive resources, etc., and an optimal best outcome. The issue for discussion, from our point of view, is related to the extent to which the certainty of success or failure would associate with perceived optimal efficiency., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Phan and Ngu.)

One interesting observation that we may all concur with is that many experts, or those who are extremely knowledgeable and well-versed in their respective domains of functioning, become "mediocre" and lose their "touch of invincibility" over time. For example, in the world of professional football, it has been argued that an elite football coach would lose his/her air of invincibility and demise after 10-15 years at the top. Why is this the case? There are different reasons and contrasting viewpoints that have been offered to account for this observed demise. One notable concept, recently introduced to explain this decline, is known as cognitive entrenchment , which is concerned with a high level of stability in one's domain schemas (Dane, 2010). This entrenchment or "situated fixation," from our proposition, may act to deter the flexibility and/or willingness of a person to adapt to a new context or situation. Some writers, on this basis, have argued that cognitive entrenchment would help explain the demise of some experts and/or why some students have difficulties adapting to new situations. An initial inspection would seem to indicate that cognitive entrenchment is detrimental, potentially imparting evidence of inflexibility, difficulty, and/or the unwillingness of a person to adapt to new contexts (Dane, 2010). This premise importantly connotes that expertise may constrain a person from being flexible, innovative, and/or creative to ongoing changes. In this analysis, an expert may experience a cognitive state of entrenchment, facilitated in this case by his/her own experience, knowledge, and/or theoretical understanding of a subject matter. Having said this, however, it is also a plausibility that cognitive entrenchment in itself espouses some form of positivity, giving rise to improvement and/or achievement of different types of adaptive outcomes. Drawing from our existing research development, we propose in this conceptual analysis article that personal "entrenchment" to a particular context (e.g., the situated fixation of a football coach to a particular training methodology) may closely relate to three major elements: self-cognizance of cognitive load imposition , a need for efficiency , and the quest for stability and comfort . As we explore later, there is credence to accept the "positivity" of cognitive entrenchment-that by nature, for example, a person would purposively choose the status quo in order to minimize cognitive load imposition, optimize efficiency, and/or to achieve minimum disruption and a high level of comfort, which could then "optimize" his/her learning experiences. We strongly believe that our propositions, which consider eight in this article, are of significance and may, importantly, provide grounding for further research development into the validity of cognitive entrenchment., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Phan and Ngu.)

Life education , also known as life and death education , is an important subject in Taiwan. Life education is more than just the study of a person's development throughout the lifespan (e.g., cognitive development). Within the learning and sociocultural contexts of Taiwan, interestingly, the study of life and death education is concerned with the premise of the promotion and fulfillment of life qualities (e.g., a person's state of contentment), and the meaningful understanding of the nature of death. To facilitate appreciation and deep, meaningful understanding of the subject, and to emphasize its uniqueness, educators have included in their teaching the importance of Eastern-derived philosophical beliefs and religious faiths (e.g., Buddhism). For example, relatively significant in its emphasis, the teaching of this subject involves detailed examination of theoretical accounts of spiritual cultivation and its positive effect on a person's interpretation and enlightenment of life wisdom. The study of life education, or life and death education, we contend, is of significance as it provides life-related insights and theoretical understanding into the intricate nature of life and death. One notable aspect of the subject entails a person's acquired life wisdom, which in turn may shape his/her life practice on a daily basis (e.g., the proactive engagement in Buddhist meditation). Importantly, the study of life education may assist individuals with their coping of grief, and to approach death with a sense of peace, calmness, and dignity. In this analysis, coupled with Buddhist faith (or any other religious faith for that matter) and facilitated by spiritual cultivation (e.g., the belief in the notion of transcendence experience ), a person may overcome grief by believing in the possibility that there is some form of post-death experience and the presence of a loved one's spiritual being. Given this emphasis, we consider an important focus for discussion in this article: to explore the significance of life and death education and to determine how its 'positive nature' could potentially yield two comparable implications for development: (i) to engage in appropriate pedagogical practices that would encourage and promote the study of life and death education, and (ii) to advance innovative research inquiries, theoretical, methodological, and/or empirical, which could highlight the significance of life education for life purposes (e.g., the significance of Chinese ideograms, such as )., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2021 The Author(s).)

The present study, using a non-experimental approach, investigated a theoretical concept of best practice, which we recently introduced - namely: a 'state of consonance' and a 'state of disconsonance' of best practice. Consonance of best practice posits that different levels of best practice (e.g., low level of best practice versus optimal level of best practice), as well as other comparable psychological constructs (e.g., motivation towards learning) would cluster or 'group' together. Disconsonance of best practice , in contrast, would indicate non-overlapping of contrasting levels of best practice (i.e., low level of best practice versus optimal level of best practice). Taiwanese undergraduates ( N = 831) from five private universities in Taipei City and New Taipei City, Taiwan took part in the study by responding to a suite of Likert-scale questionnaires (e.g., Best Practice Questionnaires, Motivation towards Learning Questionnaire), which took approximately 30-35 min to complete. Cluster analysis, commonly known as ClA , was used to analyze the data and seek theoretical understanding into the nature of the consonance of best practice. Results, overall, showed support for our proposition, resulting in four distinct profiles: 'a Balanced Profile,' 'an Intrinsic Motivation Profile,' 'a Current Best Practice + Interest Profile,' and 'a Current Best Practice + Motivation Profile.' This evidence, helping to advance further research development, has a number of practical implications for consideration. For example, how could we use the Balanced Profile to develop learning objectives and/or pedagogical practices that would encourage students to enjoy their learning experiences?, Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Phan and Ngu.)

We recently advanced the study of positive psychology by introducing the theory of optimization , which explains the underlying process of optimal best. Our continuing research interest has led us to a newly developed concept, termed as 'optimal efficiency'. Optimal efficiency , we contend, focuses on the utilization of resources as well as the amount of time and effort that a person would have to expend during the course of his/her learning. How much time and effort, for example, should a student expend before it is perceived as being 'inefficient'? Optimal efficiency, in this analysis, is concerned with an important relationship - namely: the minimization of expenditure of time, effort, resources, etc. versus the maximization in productivity. Perceived efficiency is related to the teaching and training of judgment, decision making, autonomy, and self-determination - for example, in terms of successful schooling, a student has to decide whether it is worthwhile to expend so much time and effort on a given task when he/she may not necessarily pass. In our conceptual analysis and proposition of optimal efficiency, we consider the impact of cognitive load theory , which places emphasis on calculated investment and subsequent use of cognitive resources to process information for the purpose of achieving effective learning in a subject matter. Using cognitive load theory as a basis, we attempt to validate the concept of optimal efficiency by taking into account three main types of cognitive load imposition: extraneous, intrinsic, and germane. For example, we consider the possibility that a reduction in extraneous cognitive load imposition could instill a perception of efficiency, resulting in a person's achievement of optimal best. Emphasis on encouragement of germane cognitive load, in contrast, could be perceived as being more efficient, likewise yielding exceptional outcomes in a subject matter., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2021 The Author(s).)

Positive psychology has attracted extensive interests from educators, researchers, and organizations. Many would recognize the work of Martin Seligman (e.g., Seligman, 2010) and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (e.g.,Csíkszentmihályi, 2014b). In its summarized form, positive psychology is concerned with a person's state of flourishing, his/her perceived sense of resilience and inner virtues, and a desire to have positive outlooks in life. Positive psychology is significant, forming the basis for other research inquiries - for example, the advancement of the theory of optimization (Fraillon, 2004; Phan, Ngu and Yeung, 2019b). Considering this evidence, we develop and offer an alternative theoretical model for discussion, which we termed as 'holistic psychology'. Holistic psychology , the main focus of this theoretical-conceptual article, is significant for its emphasis on the existence of life experiences, which may exist on a continuous spectrum without distinction between negativity and positivity. This testament, we contend, reflects the importance of inclusiveness and that one could consider maladaptive and negative life experiences (e.g., school disengagement) as sources of vitality, motivating and governing a person to seek for improvement, resulting in a state of flourishing. Our conceptualization in this sense is philosophical, grounded in the main premise of optimization (Fraillon, 2004; Phan et al., 2019b) in which we propose a key tenet for consideration - namely, the 'transformation' of negative life experiences into a source of 'energy' (i.e., denoted as E) for subsequent enactment. In detail for discussion, our proposed model of holistic psychology consists of four major stages: (i) personal reflection, (ii) the sub-process of transformation, (iii) enactment of energy, and (iv) arousal and sustaining an improved state of functioning., (© 2020 The Author(s).)

Life education , also known as life and death education , is an important subject in Taiwan with institutions (e.g., high school) offering degree programs and courses that focus on quality learning and implementation of life education. What is interesting from the perspective of Taiwanese education is that the teaching of life education also incorporates a number of Eastern-derived and conceptualized tenets, for example, Buddhist teaching and the importance of spiritual wisdom. This premise contends then that life education in Taiwan, in general, is concerned with the promotion, fulfillment, and cherishing of quality life experiences (e.g., personal contentment, happiness). One example of life education, which resonates with other spiritual beliefs and religious faiths (e.g., Hinduism), is related to spiritual cultivation and the enlightenment of life wisdom. Our own teaching of the subject, likewise, places emphasis on the goal of teaching students to seek meaningful understanding of and appreciation for three major, interrelated components of life education: life wisdom , life practice , and life care . It has been acknowledged, to a certain degree, that life education has made meaningful contributions, such as the creation and facilitation of a civil, vibrant society, and that many Taiwanese individuals show dignity, respect for elders, and reverence for spiritual and religious faiths. For example, aside from high-quality hospice care, many Taiwanese engage in different types of benevolent acts (e.g., providing spiritual advice to someone who is dying), where possible. Life education is a beneficial subject for teaching and learning as its theoretical understanding may help individuals cope with pathologies and negative conditions and life experiences. One negative life experience, in this case, is the ultimate fate of humankind: death. Approaching death and/or the onset of grief is something that we all have to experience. How does one approach death? It is not easy feat, and of course, grief for a loved one is personal, and some of us struggle with this. We contend that spiritual cultivation and enlightenment, arising from life education, may assist us with the topic of death (e.g., the possibility of transcendence beyond the realm of life). More importantly however, from our own teaching experiences and research development, we strongly believe and rationalize that the subject of life education could, indeed, coincide with and support the paradigm of positive psychology (Seligman, 1999, 2010; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000). Forming the premise of the present conceptual analysis article, we propose that a person's "spiritual and enlightened self," reflecting the convergence of three major aspects of life education (i.e., philosophical reflection, enrichment of personal well-being, and spiritual cultivation), would result in the initiation and creation of a number of virtues and positive characteristics, for example, having a positive outlook in life, having a perceived sense of spirituality , showing compassion , forgiveness , etc. These virtues and quality characteristics, from our philosophical reasoning, are equivalent to those qualities that the paradigm of positive psychology advocates for. In summary, we conceptualize that the subject of life education, from the perspective of Taiwanese education, may intertwine with the paradigm of positive psychology. A person's spiritual and enlightened self, or his/her "holistic self," from our rationalization, is the ultimate optimal life experience that he/she may have, enabling him/her to address the gamut of life conditions and experiences. The distinctive nature of life education in this case, as a point of summary, is that it incorporates spiritual beliefs and religious faiths (e.g., Buddhist faith), encouraging a person to seek nature and divine-human relationships, as well as to contemplate and to explore the complex nature of his/her inner self. The notion of Buddhist samsâra , for example, as "evidence" of spirituality, entailing the endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, may provide a person with hope into the afterlife. Such esoteric discourse, we contend, is positive and optimistic, allowing individuals to discard the dividing line between life and death., (Copyright © 2020 Phan, Ngu, Chen, Wu, Lin and Hsu.)

The subject of mathematics is a national priority for most countries in the world. By all account, mathematics is considered as being "pure theoretical" (Becher, 1987), compared to other subjects that are "soft theoretical" or "hard applied." As such, the learning of mathematics may pose extreme difficulties for some students. Indeed, as a pure theoretical subject, mathematics is not that enjoyable and for some students, its learning can be somewhat arduous and challenging. One such example is the topical theme of Trigonometry , which is relatively complex for comprehension and understanding. This Trigonometry problem that involves algebraic transformation skills is confounded, in particular, by the location of the pronumeral (e.g., x )-whether it is a numerator sin30° = x /5 or a denominator sin30° = 5/ x . More specifically, we contend that some students may have difficulties when solving sin30° = x /5, say, despite having learned how to solve a similar problem, such as x /4 = 3. For more challenging Trigonometry problems, such as sin50° = 12/ x where the pronumeral is a denominator, students have been taught to "swap" the x with sin30° and then from this, solve for x . Previous research has attempted to address this issue but was unsuccessful. Learning by analogy relies on drawing a parallel between a learned problem and a new problem, whereby both share a similar solution procedure. We juxtapose a linear equation (e.g., x /4 = 3) and a Trigonometry problem (e.g., sin30° = x /5) to facilitate analogical learning. Learning by comparison , in contrast, identifies similarities and differences between two problems, thereby contributing to students' understanding of the solution procedures for both problems. We juxtapose the two types of Trigonometry problems that differ in the location of the pronumeral (e.g., sin30° = x /5 vs. cos50° = 20/ x ) to encourage active comparison. Therefore, drawing on the complementary strength of learning by analogy and learning by comparison theories, we expect to counter the inherent difficulty of learning Trigonometry problems that involve algebraic transformation skills. This conceptual analysis article, overall, makes attempts to elucidate and seek clarity into the two comparative pedagogical approaches for effective learning of Trigonometry., (Copyright © 2020 Ngu and Phan.)

Positive psychology, as a distinctive paradigm, focuses on the remedy of pathologies and, by contrast, the promotion of positive experiences and conditions in life (e.g., encouraging a state of flourishing). Positive psychology, in its simplistic form, may provide evidence and insightful understanding into the proactivity of human agency (Seligman, 1999; Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi, 2000). Drawing from this emphasis, we have developed the theory of optimization , which attempts to explain the achievement of optimal functioning in life (e.g., optimal cognitive functioning: academic performance). By the same token, in the course of our research development into the theory of optimization, we have also delved into a comparable theoretical orientation, namely: the multifaceted nature of mindfulness , consisting of three interrelated components - the psychological component of mindfulness, the philosophical component of mindfulness, and the spiritual component of mindfulness. This conceptualization of mindfulness is rather unique for its incorporation of both Western and Eastern knowledge, philosophical viewpoints, and epistemologies into one holistic framework. The main premise of this conceptual analysis article is to advance the study of positive psychology by specifically introducing our recently developed model of mindfulness, in this case, the multifaceted structure of mindfulness with its three distinct components. Importantly, we make attempts to highlight the significance of this multifaceted model by situating it within the theory of optimization for academic learning. Using philosophical psychology and personal-based teaching and research reasoning, we provide a valid rationale as to how aspects of our proposed model of mindfulness (e.g., reaching a state of enlightenment) could act to facilitate and optimize a person's state of functioning (e.g., cognitive functioning). Moreover, we posit that our rationale regarding mindfulness as a potential "optimizing agent" for the purpose of optimal functioning could, indeed, emphasize and reflect the salient nature of positive psychology. In other words, we contend that an explanatory account of mindfulness from the perspectives of Confucianism and Buddhism could, in this analysis, coincide with and support the meaningful understanding and appreciation for the study of positive psychology in educational and non-educational contexts. We conclude the article by exploring the complex issue of methodology - that is, for example, how would a researcher measure, assess, and/or empirically validate the multifaceted nature of mindfulness?, (Copyright © 2020 Phan, Ngu, Chen, Wu, Shi, Lin, Shih and Wang.)

Time is an interesting concept. For some cultural groups, time is an entity that exists only in the here and now, whereas for others it can be linear, emphasizing a person's past, present, and future. Many of us, while living in the "present moment," may also anticipate and project future goals, dreams, hopes, and ambitions. Indeed, from a positive point of view, future orientations are healthy and may direct one's focus, instill motivation and persistence, and mobilize the expenditure of effort. Existing research has provided empirical evidence to support the promotion and encouragement of a positive future time orientation . From an educational point of view, the study of time may be useful for calculating achievement, given that a student may use future time orientation to guide and direct his/her academic and/or non-academic future. One notable question for consideration, in this case, relates to the importance of timespan - that is, how far into the future should one project? There may be a significant difference between, say, a timespan that scopes a 6-month period as opposed to a timespan that scopes a 2-year period. By the same token, over the past few years we have delved into an interesting line of inquiry, namely, the nature of optimal best - for example, what facilitates and/or causes a person to achieve an optimal level of best practice in particular subject matter? Our theory of human optimization, consolidated and recently published in Frontiers in Psychology , provides an in-depth theoretical account of an underlying process, which we postulate could help explain the achievement of optimal best. Optimization, in this case, is intimately linked to a person's achievement of optimal best. We rationalize that within the context of academic learning, cognitive complexity of particular subject matter could serve as an important source of motivation in the anticipation and projection a student's extended future timespan. In this analysis, the extremely complex nature of a learning task or a suite of tasks may compel a student to consider a longer future timespan for successful completion. We also argue, in contrast, that the specific duration of a future timespan (for e.g., 6 months vs. 2 years) could play a significant role in the successful optimization of a student's state of cognitive functioning., (Copyright © 2020 Phan, Ngu and McQueen.)

Predicting and enhancing positive emotions, reflecting the tenets of positive psychology, is of considerable importance for educators. Positive emotions may consist of a person's indication of happiness, joy, and love. In school and university settings, as research has shown, positive emotions play a pivotal role in helping students adjust, make friends, and engage in proactive social relationships with others. It is imperative for us to consider the design and development of educational programs that could assist in the facilitation of positive emotions. The present study involved examination of an inquiry into the prediction of positive emotion of university students, via means of data drawn from Taiwan. The main question for consideration is to determine the extent to which both social (e.g., the social milieu) and personal (e.g., personal resolve) influences could predict positive emotions. Structural equation modelling yielded support for our proposed a priori model: (a) the direct predictive effects of the social milieu, personal resolve, relating to others, and academic liking experience, and (b) the potential mediating roles of relating to others, and academic liking experience. Overall, the concept of emotions plays a central role and is accounted for by different types of personal and social contextual influences., (© 2019 The Author(s).)

One notable concept that is of interest is a person's state of optimal functioning . Achieving optimal functioning (e.g., subjective well-being at school), aside from personal autonomy, requires some form of "optimization." Optimization , we argue, is more than just an "enhancement," a "predictive effect," and/or a "causal flow" between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV). We note from existing literature that optimization has often been referred to without a clear, definitive explanation of what this term actually entails. At the same time, we acknowledge that unlike other areas of development (e.g., engagement), no theoretical article is available to explain the concept of optimization. This article considers a number of theoretical tenets for advancement: (1) the tenet of three major criteria that could assist in the explanation, assessment, and measurement of optimization, (2) the tenet of the development of a methodological conceptualization that could measure and assess optimization, and (3) the tenet of the "quantification" of optimization, and in particular, a proposed index of optimization and a corresponding scientific notation of " γ ", which we coin as an "optimizing effect." Overall, we contend that this examination is insightful and holistic, seeking clarity into an important topical theme in psychology.

The study of optimal best practice within the context of academia has produced both empirical and theoretical contributions. Optimal best practice, also coined as optimal functioning, is concerned with a person's personal best-that is, "what is the best that I can do for this academic subject?" Research in the social sciences has, to date, explored different types of optimal best-physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. What is of considerable interest, as a related matter, is a question of how a person reaches and experiences a level of optimal best practice. Recent research development, for example, has explored various conceptualizations of optimal best practice-for example, one distinctive theoretical model, the Framework of Achievement Bests [1, 2], makes a concerted effort to explore the underlying process of optimization-that is, in this case, how an optimal level of best practice is achieved. The present study, as detailed below, investigates via means of non-experimental data a theoretical model pertaining to the achievement of optimal best practice. This examination, we postulate, would enable us to add clarity and provide additional theoretical insights the operational nature of the process of optimization. The operational nature of optimization, as described in our recent research [1, 3], emphasizes three major tenets: (i) the main sources of a person's optimal best practice, (ii) the potential 'optimizing' influences of three comparable agencies on the achievement of optimal best practice (i.e., personal resolve, social relationship, and personal self-efficacy), and (iii) the impact of optimal best practice on future adaptive outcomes (i.e., academic striving and personal well-being). We explored this topic via means of the use of a non-experimental, correlational design with participants drawn from Taiwanese university students (N = 1010). Structural equation modelling (SEM) produced evidence, which empirically supported existing research [1, 3] and substantiated our knowledge of the concept of optimal best practice. Evidence established from the present study has also assisted us to identify one pervasive issue, which we call for further research development-namely, to consider, design, and develop an appropriate methodological approach that would enable researchers to accurately measure and assess the process of optimization. Finally, in terms of teaching and learning, we acknowledge that our research investigation has provided some insights into potential educational practices for implementation., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Recent research has explored the nature of the theoretical concept of optimal best practice, which emphasizes the importance of personal resolve, inner strength, and the maximization of a person's development, whether it is mental, cognitive, social, or physical. In the context of academia, the study of optimal functioning places emphasis on a student's effort expenditure, positive outlook, and determination to strive for educational success and enriched subjective well-being. One major inquiry closely associated with optimal functioning is the process of optimization. Optimization, in brief, delves into the enactment of different psychological variables that could improve a person's internal state of functioning (e.g., cognitive functioning). From a social sciences point of view, very little empirical evidence exists to affirm and explain a person's achievement of optimal best practice. Over the past five years, we have made extensive progress in the area of optimal best practice by developing different quantitative measures to assess and evaluate the importance of this theoretical concept. The present study, which we collaborated with colleagues in Taiwan, involved the use of structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze a cohort of Taiwanese university students' (N = 1010) responses to a series of Likert-scale measures that focused on three major entities: (i) the importance of optimal best practice, (ii) three major psychological variables (i.e., effective functioning, personal resolve, and emotional functioning) that could optimize student' optimal best levels in academic learning, and (iii) three comparable educational outcomes (i.e., motivation towards academic learning, interest in academic learning, and academic liking experience) that could positively associate with optimal best practice and the three mentioned psychological variables. Findings that we obtained, overall, fully supported our initial a priori model. This evidence, in its totality, has made substantive practical, theoretical, and methodological contributions. Foremost, from our point of view, is clarity into the psychological process of optimal best practice in the context of schooling. For example, in relation to subjective well-being experiences, how can educators optimize students' positive emotions? More importantly, aside from practical relevance, our affirmed research inquiry has produced insightful information for further advancement. One distinction, in this case, entails consideration of a more complex methodological design that could measure, assess, and evaluate the impact of optimization., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The formation of self-efficacy, according to Bandura's (1997) social-cognitive theory, is an important area of inquiry. This theoretical tenet posits the importance of enactive learning experience, followed by lesser influences of vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. Quantitative research, predominantly, has produced clear and consistent evidence that supports this position. We argue that the elementary school years may indicate differently, whereby children's limited cognitive maturity and learning experiences could compel them to rely on other psychosocial informational sources. To date and to our knowledge, very few studies, if any, have explored the sustained influence of enactive learning experience across time. In this study, consequently, we tested a sequential predictive model that involved the differential influences of the 4 major informational sources on self-efficacy and then self-efficacy on academic achievement. Three time points of data (N = 328, Year 6) were collected across the calendar year, and Mplus 7.3 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012) was used to assist us in our structural modeling testing. At Time 1, only enactive learning experience and vicarious experience positively influenced self-efficacy. At Time 2, after controlling for prior variance of Time 1 corresponding factors, only enactive learning experience remained significant. At Time 3, after controlling for autoregressive paths, enactive learning experience remained significant, and both verbal persuasion and emotional and physiological states positively influenced self-efficacy. The impact of self-efficacy on academic achievement was significant across the 3 occasions (βs = .20-.46). (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).)

The present study explored the effects of academic and social self-efficacy beliefs on students' well-being at school, academic engagement, and achievement outcome. Well-being at school is conceptualized as a central mediator of students' engagement and learning in achievement contexts. It was hypothesized that well-being at school would mediate the effects of social and academic self-efficacy beliefs on engagement and achievement outcome. This research focus has credence and may provide grounding for educational-social interventions. A cohort of 284 (122 girls, 162 boys) Year 11 secondary school students participated in this correlational study. A theoretical-conceptual model was explored and tested using structural equation modeling. Subsequent structural equation modeling analyses provided moderate support for the hypothesized model. The results showed that both academic and social self-efficacy depended on each other in their effect on well-being at school. Both academic engagement and well-being at school served as partial mediators of the effects of academic and social self-efficacy on academic engagement., (© The Author(s) 2016.)